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Charlemagne Great Franks Holy Roman

742-814
Born: Ingelheim, Mainz-Bingen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany
Died: 320 Aachen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany

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  • Story: Charlemagne By Wikipedia

    <div><strong><span style="font-size: 24pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</font></span> </div><p style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Calibri" size="3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne</font></p><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Jump to: <font color="#0000ff">navigation</font>, <font color="#0000ff">search</font></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">For other uses, see <font color="#0000ff">Charlemagne (disambiguation)</font>.</span></em></div><strong><span style="font-size: 12.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span></strong><div><strong><span style="font-size: 12.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne</span></strong><em><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Rex Francorum (</span></em><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>King of the Franks</span>)<em><br>Rex Langobardorum (</em><span><font color="#0000ff">King of the Lombards</font></span><em>)<br>Imperator Romanorum (</em><span><font color="#0000ff">Emperor of the Romans</font></span><em>)</em></span> </div><div><em><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">A coin of Charlemagne&#39;s with the inscription</span></em><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> KAROLVS IMP AVG <em>(&quot;Carolus Imperator Augustus&quot;)</em></span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Reign</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">768 &ndash; 814</span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Coronation</font></span></span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">25 December 800</span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Predecessor</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Short</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Successor</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Louis the Pious</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Father</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Short</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Mother</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Bertrada of Laon</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Born</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">2 April 742 <span><font color="#0000ff">Li&egrave;ge</font></span><span style="display: none"> (</span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">742-04-02</span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">)</span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Died</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">28 January 814 (aged&nbsp;71) <span><font color="#0000ff">Aachen</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Burial</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Aachen Cathedral</font></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> </div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">C</font></span></span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">arolingian dynasty</font></span></span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Pippinids</font></span></span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></div><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Elder</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(c. 580&ndash;640)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Grimoald</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(616&ndash;656)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Childebert the Adopted</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(d. 662)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li></ul><div><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Arnulfings</font></span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></div><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Arnulf of Metz</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(582&ndash;640)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Chlodulf of Metz</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(d. 696 or 697)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Ansegisel</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(c.602&ndash;before 679)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Middle</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(c.635&ndash;714)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Grimoald II</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(d. 714)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Drogo of Champagne</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(670&ndash;708)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Theudoald</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(d. 714)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li></ul><div><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Carolingians</font></span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></div><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Charles Martel</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(686&ndash;741)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Carloman</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(d. 754)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Pepin the Short</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(714&ndash;768)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Carloman I</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(751&ndash;771)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne</span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(d. 814)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Louis the Pious</font></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(778&ndash;840)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></li></ul><div><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">After the <span><font color="#0000ff">Treaty of Verdun</font></span> (843)</span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span></div><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Lothair I, Holy Roman Emperor</font> (795&ndash;855)<br>(<span><font color="#0000ff">Middle Francia</font></span>) </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Charles the Bald</font></span> (823&ndash;877)<br>(<font color="#0000ff">Western Francia</font>) </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; color: black; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Louis the German</font></span> (804&ndash;876)<br>(<font color="#0000ff">Eastern Francia</font>) </span></li></ul><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span></strong><div><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> (pronounced </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'arial unicode ms','sans-serif'"><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none"><font color="#0000ff">/ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn/</font></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">; <font color="#0000ff">Latin</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Carolus Magnus</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> or <em>Karolus Magnus</em></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, meaning <strong>Charles the Great</strong>; 2 April 742 &ndash; 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768 to his death. He expanded the <font color="#0000ff">Frankish</font> kingdom into a <font color="#0000ff">Frankish Empire</font> that incorporated much of <font color="#0000ff">Western</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Central Europe</font>. During his reign, he conquered <font color="#0000ff">Italy</font> and was <font color="#0000ff">crowned</font> </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Imperator Augustus</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> by <font color="#0000ff">Pope Leo III</font> on 25 December 800 which temporarily made him a rival of the <font color="#0000ff">Byzantine Emperor</font> in <font color="#0000ff">Constantinople</font>. His rule is also associated with the <font color="#0000ff">Carolingian Renaissance</font>, a revival of art, religion, and culture through the medium of the <font color="#0000ff">Catholic Church</font>. Through his foreign conquests and internal reforms, Charlemagne helped define both <font color="#0000ff">Western Europe</font> and the Middle Ages. He is numbered as <strong>Charles I</strong> in the regnal lists of <font color="#0000ff">France</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Germany</font> (where he is known as <em>Karl der Gro&szlig;e</em>), and the <font color="#0000ff">Holy Roman Empire</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The son of King <font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Short</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Bertrada of Laon</font>, he succeeded his father and co-ruled with his brother <font color="#0000ff">Carloman I</font>. The latter got on badly with Charlemagne, but war was prevented by the sudden death of Carloman in 771. Charlemagne continued the policy of his father towards the <font color="#0000ff">papacy</font> and became its protector, removing the <font color="#0000ff">Lombards</font> from power in Italy, and waging war on the <font color="#0000ff">Saracens</font>, who menaced his realm from Spain. It was during one of these campaigns that Charlemagne experienced the worst defeat of his life, at the <font color="#0000ff">Battle of Roncesvalles</font> (778) memorialised in the <em><font color="#0000ff">Song of Roland</font></em>. He also campaigned against the peoples to his east, especially the <font color="#0000ff">Saxons</font>, and after a protracted war subjected them to his rule. By forcibly converting them to Christianity, he integrated them into his realm and thus paved the way for the later <font color="#0000ff">Ottonian dynasty</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Today he is regarded not only as the founding father of both <font color="#0000ff">French</font> and <font color="#0000ff">German</font> monarchies, but also as <em>the father of Europe</em>: his empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, and the Carolingian renaissance encouraged the formation of a common European identity.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[1]</font></sup></span> </div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Contents</span></strong> </div><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">1 Background</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">2 Personal traits</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">2.1 Date and place of birth</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">2.2 Language</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">2.3 Personal appearance</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">2.4 Dress</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">3 Rise to power</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">3.1 Early life</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">3.2 Joint rule</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">4 Italian campaigns</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">4.1 Conquest of Lombardy</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">4.2 Southern Italy</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">5 Charles and his children</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">6 Spanish campaigns</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">6.1 Roncesvalles campaign</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">6.2 Wars with the Moors</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">7 Eastern campaigns</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">7.1 Saxon Wars</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">7.2 Submission of Bavaria</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">7.3 Avar campaigns</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">7.4 Slav expeditions</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">8 Imperium</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">8.1 Imperial diplomacy</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">8.2 Danish attacks</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">8.3 Death</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9 Administration</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.1 Military</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.2 Economic and monetary reforms</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.3 Education reforms</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.4 Church reforms</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.5 Writing reforms</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.6 Political reforms</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.6.1 Organisation</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.6.2 Imperial coronation</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">9.6.3 Divisio regnorum</font> </span></li></ul></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">10 Cultural significance</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">11 Family</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">11.1 Marriages and heirs</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">11.2 Concubinages and illegitimate children</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">12 References</font> </span><ul><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">12.1 Footnotes</font> </span></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">12.2 Bibliography</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">13 External links</font> </span></li></ul><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Background</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">By the 6th century, the <font color="#0000ff">Franks</font> were <font color="#0000ff">Christianised</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Francia</font> ruled by the <font color="#0000ff">Merovingians</font> had become the most powerful of the kingdoms which succeeded the <font color="#0000ff">Western Roman Empire</font>. But following the <font color="#0000ff">Battle of Tertry</font>, the Merovingians declined into a state of powerlessness, for which they have been dubbed do-nothing kings (<em><font color="#0000ff">rois fain&eacute;ants</font></em>). Almost all government powers of any consequence were exercised by their chief officer, the <font color="#0000ff">mayor of the palace</font> or <em>major domus</em>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 687, <font color="#0000ff">Pippin of Herstal</font>, mayor of the palace of <font color="#0000ff">Austrasia</font>, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his victory at Tertry and became the sole governor of the entire Frankish kingdom. Pippin himself was the grandson of two most important figures of the Austrasian Kingdom, Saint <font color="#0000ff">Arnulf of Metz</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Pippin of Landen</font>. Pippin the Middle was eventually succeeded by his illegitimate son Charles, later known as <font color="#0000ff">Charles Martel</font> (the Hammer). After 737, Charles governed the Franks without a king on the throne but desisted from calling himself &quot;king.&quot; Charles was succeeded by his sons <font color="#0000ff">Carloman</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Short</font>, the father of Charlemagne. To curb separatism in the periphery of the realm, the brothers placed on the throne <font color="#0000ff">Childeric III</font>, who was to be the last Merovingian king.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">After Carloman resigned his office, Pippin, with <font color="#0000ff">Pope Zachary</font>&#39;s approval, had Childeric III deposed. In 751, Pippin was elected and anointed King of the Franks and in 754 <font color="#0000ff">Pope Stephen II</font> again anointed him and his young sons, now heirs to the great realm which already covered most of western and central Europe. Thus was the Merovingian dynasty replaced by the <font color="#0000ff">Carolingian</font> dynasty, named after Pippin&#39;s father, Charles Martel.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Under the new dynasty, the Frankish kingdom spread to encompass an area including most of Western Europe. The division of that kingdom formed <font color="#0000ff">France</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Germany</font>;<sup><font color="#0000ff">[2]</font></sup> and the <font color="#0000ff">religious</font>, <font color="#0000ff">political</font>, and <font color="#0000ff">artistic</font> evolutions originating from a centrally-positioned Francia made a defining imprint on the whole of Western Europe.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Personal traits</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Date and place of birth</span></strong></div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne is believed to have been born in 742; however, several factors have led to a reconsideration of this date. First, the year 742 was calculated from his age given at death, rather than from attestation in primary sources. Another date is given in the <em><span style="color: #cc2200">Annales Petaviani</span></em>, that of 2 April 747.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[3]</font></sup> In that year, 2 April was at <font color="#0000ff">Easter</font>. The birth of an emperor at Eastertime is a coincidence likely to provoke comment, but there was no such comment documented in 747, leading some to suspect that the Easter birthday was a pious fiction concocted as a way of honoring the Emperor. Other commentators weighing the primary records have suggested that his birth was one year later, in 748. At present, it is impossible to be certain of the date of the birth of Charlemagne. The best guesses include 1 April 747, after 15 April 747, or 1 April 748, in <font color="#0000ff">Herstal</font> (where his father was born, a town close to <font color="#0000ff">Li&egrave;ge</font> in modern day <font color="#0000ff">Belgium</font>), the region from where both the Merovingian and Carolingian families originated. He went to live in his father&#39;s villa in <font color="#0000ff">Jupille</font> when he was around seven, which caused Jupille to be listed as a possible place of birth in almost every history book. Other cities have been suggested, including, <font color="#0000ff">Pr&uuml;m</font>, <font color="#0000ff">D&uuml;ren</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Gauting</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Aachen</font>. </span></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne (left) and <font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Hunchback</font>. Tenth-century copy of a lost original from about 830.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Dubbed <em>Charles le Magne</em> &quot;Charles the Great&quot;, he was named after his grandfather, <font color="#0000ff">Charles Martel</font>. The name derives from Germanic *<em>karlaz</em> &quot;free man, commoner&quot;,<sup><font color="#0000ff">[4]</font></sup> which gave German <em>Kerl</em> &quot;man, guy&quot; and English <em><font color="#0000ff">churl</font></em>. His name, however, is first attested in its Latin form, &quot;<em>Carolus</em>&quot; or &quot;<em>Karolus</em>.&quot;</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In many eastern European languages, the very word for &quot;king&quot; derives from Charles&#39; name. (<em>e.g.</em>, <font color="#0000ff">Polish</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">kr&oacute;l</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Czech</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">kr&aacute;l</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Lithuanian</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">karalius</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Latvian</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">karalis</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Hungarian</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">kir&aacute;ly</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Serbo-Croatian</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">kralj</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">/краљ</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Russian</font>: </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">король</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Turkish</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">kral</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, <font color="#0000ff">Slovak</font>: </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">kr&aacute;l</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">)</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Language</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne&#39;s <font color="#0000ff">native language</font> is a matter of controversy. It was probably a <font color="#0000ff">Germanic</font> <font color="#0000ff">dialect</font> of the <font color="#0000ff">Ripuarian Franks</font>, but <font color="#0000ff">linguists</font> differ on its identity and chronology. Some linguists go so far as to say that he did not speak <font color="#0000ff">Old Frankish</font> as he was born in 742 or 747, by which time Old Frankish had become extinct. Old Frankish is reconstructed from its descendant, <font color="#0000ff">Old Low Franconian</font>, which would give rise to the Dutch language and to the modern dialects in the German North Rhineland, which were dubbed Ripuarian in modern times. Another important source are loanwords in <font color="#0000ff">Old French</font>. Linguists know very little about Old Frankish, as it is attested mainly as phrases and words in the law codes of the main Frankish tribes (especially those of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks), which are written in Latin interspersed with Germanic elements.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[5]</font></sup> The Franconian language, which was a form of <font color="#0000ff">Lower German</font>, had been replaced with an <font color="#0000ff">Old High German</font> form in the area comprising the contemporary Southern Rhineland, The Palatinate South Hessen and Northern parts of Baden-W&uuml;rttemberg and Bavaria. The present Dutch language area along with the modern Ripuarian areas in the North Rhine region preserved a <font color="#0000ff">Lower German</font> form of Franconian dubbed <font color="#0000ff">Old Low Franconian</font> or <font color="#0000ff">Old Dutch</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The area of Charlemagne&#39;s birth does not make determination of his native language easier. Most historians agree he was born around <font color="#0000ff">Li&egrave;ge</font>, like his father, but some say he was born in or around <font color="#0000ff">Aachen</font>, some 50&nbsp;km (31&nbsp;mi) away. At that time, this was an area of great linguistic diversity. If we take Li&egrave;ge (around 750) as the centre, we find:</span> </div><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Old East Low Franconian in the city, north and northwest; </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">the closely related Old <font color="#0000ff">Ripuarian Franconian</font> (a central <font color="#0000ff">Old High German</font> dialect) to the east and in Aachen; and </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Gallo-Romance</font> (the ancestor of the <font color="#0000ff">Walloon</font> dialect of Old French) in the south and southwest. </span></li></ul><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The names he gave his <font color="#0000ff">children</font> may be indicators of the language he spoke, as all of his daughters received <font color="#0000ff">Old High German</font> names.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Apart from his native language he also spoke <font color="#0000ff">Latin</font> &quot;as fluently as his own tongue&quot; and understood a bit of Greek: <em>Grecam vero melius intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat</em>, &quot;He understood Greek better than he could pronounce it.&quot;<sup><font color="#0000ff">[6]</font></sup></span><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Personal appearance</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Though no description from Charlemagne&#39;s lifetime exists, his personal appearance is known from a good description by <font color="#0000ff">Einhard</font>, author of the biography <em><font color="#0000ff">Vita Karoli Magni</font></em>. Einhard tells in his twenty-second chapter:<sup><font color="#0000ff">[7]</font></sup></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">He was heavily built, sturdy, and of considerable stature, although not exceptionally so, since his height was seven times the length of his own foot. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly larger nose than usual, white but still attractive hair, a bright and cheerful expression, a short and fat neck, and a slightly protruding stomach. His voice was clear, but a little higher than one would have expected for a man of his build. He enjoyed good health, except for the fevers that affected him in the last few years of his life. Toward the end he dragged one leg. Even then, he stubbornly did what he wanted and refused to listen to doctors, indeed he detested them, because they wanted to persuade him to stop eating roast meat, as was his wont, and to be content with boiled meat.</font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The physical portrait provided by Einhard is confirmed by contemporary depictions of the emperor, such as coins and his 8-inch bronze statue kept in the <font color="#0000ff">Louvre</font>. Charles description of Charlemagne&#39;s height (6 feet 4&nbsp;inches, or 193 centimeters) was not far off. Though it was Herculean stature, particularly in a period in which people were a little shorter than most today, archaeology has confirmed his tallness: in 1861, Charlemagne&#39;s tomb was opened by scientists who reconstructed his skeleton and found that it indeed measured 74.9&nbsp;inches (190 centimeters).<sup><font color="#0000ff">[8]</font></sup></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charles is well known to have been fair-haired, tall, and stately, with a disproportionately thick neck. The Roman tradition of realistic personal portraiture was in complete eclipse in his time, where individual traits were submerged in <font color="#0000ff">iconic</font> typecastings. Charlemagne, as an ideal ruler, ought to be portrayed in the corresponding fashion, any contemporary would have assumed. The images of enthroned Charlemagne, God&#39;s representative on Earth, bear more connections to the icons of Christ in majesty than to modern (or antique) conceptions of portraiture. Charlemagne in later imagery (as in the <font color="#0000ff">D&uuml;rer</font> portrait) is often portrayed with flowing blond hair, due to a misunderstanding of Einhard, who describes Charlemagne as having <em>canitie pulchra</em>, or &quot;beautiful white hair&quot;, which has been rendered as blonde or fair in many translations.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Dress</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Part of the treasure in Aachen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne wore the traditional, inconspicuous and distinctly non-aristocratic <font color="#0000ff">costume of the Frankish people</font>, described by Einhard thus:</span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Frank dress: next to his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet, and he protected his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skins.</font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">He wore a blue cloak and always carried a sword with him. The typical sword was of a golden or silver hilt. He wore fancy jewelled swords to banquets or ambassadorial receptions. </span></div><div></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Nevertheless: </span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">He despised foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed himself to be robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned the Roman tunic, chlamys, and shoes; the first time at the request of Pope Hadrian, the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian&#39;s successor.</font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">He could rise to the occasion when necessary. On great feast days, he wore embroidery and jewels on his clothing and shoes. He had a golden buckle for his cloak on such occasions and would appear with his great <font color="#0000ff">diadem</font>, but he despised such apparel, according to Einhard, and usually dressed like the common people.</span><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Rise to power</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Early life</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne was the eldest child of <font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Short</font> (714 &ndash; 24 September 768, reigned from 751) and his wife <font color="#0000ff">Bertrada of Laon</font> (720 &ndash; 12 July 783), daughter of <font color="#0000ff">Caribert of Laon</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Bertrada of Cologne</font>. Records name only <font color="#0000ff">Carloman</font>, <span style="color: #cc2200">Gisela</span>, and a short-lived child named Pippin as his younger siblings. The semi-mythical <font color="#0000ff">Redburga</font>, wife of King <font color="#0000ff">Egbert of Wessex</font>, is sometimes claimed to be his sister (or sister-in-law or niece), and the legendary material makes him <font color="#0000ff">Roland</font>&#39;s maternal uncle through a lady Bertha.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Much of what is known of Charlemagne&#39;s life comes from his biographer, <font color="#0000ff">Einhard</font>, who wrote a <em>Vita Caroli Magni</em> (or <em>Vita Karoli Magni</em>), the <em>Life of Charlemagne</em>. Einhard says of the early life of Charles:</span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">It would be folly, I think, to write a word concerning Charles&#39; birth and infancy, or even his boyhood, for nothing has ever been written on the subject, and there is no one alive now who can give information on it. Accordingly, I determined to pass that by as unknown, and to proceed at once to treat of his character, his deeds, and such other facts of his life as are worth telling and setting forth, and shall first give an account of his deeds at home and abroad, then of his character and pursuits, and lastly of his administration and death, omitting nothing worth knowing or necessary to know.</font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">On the death of Pippin, the kingdom of the Franks was divided&mdash;following tradition&mdash;between Charlemagne and Carloman. Charles took the outer parts of the kingdom, bordering on the sea, namely <font color="#0000ff">Neustria</font>, western <font color="#0000ff">Aquitaine</font>, and the northern parts of <font color="#0000ff">Austrasia</font>, while Carloman retained the inner parts: southern Austrasia, <font color="#0000ff">Septimania</font>, eastern Aquitaine, <font color="#0000ff">Burgundy</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Provence</font>, and <font color="#0000ff">Swabia</font>, lands bordering on <font color="#0000ff">Italy</font>.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Joint rule</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">On 9 October, immediately after the funeral of their father, both the kings withdrew from <font color="#0000ff">Saint Denis</font> to be proclaimed by their nobles and consecrated by the bishops, Charlemagne in <font color="#0000ff">Noyon</font> and Carloman in <font color="#0000ff">Soissons</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The first event of the brothers&#39; reign was the rising of the Aquitainians and <font color="#0000ff">Gascons</font>, in 769, in that territory split between the two kings. Years before Pippin had suppressed the revolt of <font color="#0000ff">Waifer</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Duke of Aquitaine</font>. Now, one Hunald (seemingly other than <font color="#0000ff">Hunald</font> the duke) led the Aquitainians as far north as <font color="#0000ff">Angoul&ecirc;me</font>. Charlemagne met Carloman, but Carloman refused to participate and returned to Burgundy. Charlemagne went to war, leading an army to <font color="#0000ff">Bordeaux</font>, where he set up a camp at Fronsac. Hunold was forced to flee to the court of Duke <font color="#0000ff">Lupus II of Gascony</font>. Lupus, fearing Charlemagne, turned Hunold over in exchange for peace. He was put in a monastery. Aquitaine was finally fully subdued by the Franks.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The brothers maintained lukewarm relations with the assistance of their mother Bertrada, but in 770 Charlemagne signed a treaty with Duke <font color="#0000ff">Tassilo III of Bavaria</font> and married a Lombard Princess (commonly known today as <font color="#0000ff">Desiderata</font>), the daughter of King <font color="#0000ff">Desiderius</font>, to surround Carloman with his own allies. Though <font color="#0000ff">Pope Stephen III</font> first opposed the marriage with the Lombard princess, he would soon have little to fear from a Frankish-Lombard alliance.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Less than a year after his marriage, Charlemagne repudiated Desiderata, and quickly remarried to a 13-year-old Swabian named <font color="#0000ff">Hildegard</font>. The repudiated Desiderata returned to her father&#39;s court at <font color="#0000ff">Pavia</font>. The Lombard&#39;s wrath was now aroused and he would gladly have allied with Carloman to defeat Charles. But before war could break out, Carloman died on 5 December 771. Carloman&#39;s wife <font color="#0000ff">Gerberga</font> fled to Desiderius&#39; court with her sons for protection.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Italian campaigns</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Conquest of Lombardy</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The Frankish king Charlemagne was a devout Catholic who maintained a close relationship with the papacy throughout his life. In 772, when <font color="#0000ff">Pope Hadrian I</font> was threatened by invaders, the king rushed to Rome to provide assistance. Shown here, the pope asks Charlemagne for help at a meeting near Rome</span></div><div></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">At the succession of <font color="#0000ff">Pope Hadrian I</font> in 772, he demanded the return of certain cities in the former <font color="#0000ff">exarchate of Ravenna</font> as in accordance with a promise of Desiderius&#39; succession. Desiderius instead took over certain papal cities and invaded the <font color="#0000ff">Pentapolis</font>, heading for <font color="#0000ff">Rome</font>. Hadrian sent embassies to Charlemagne in autumn requesting he enforce the policies of his father, Pippin. Desiderius sent his own </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">embassies denying the pope&#39;s charges. The embassies both met at <font color="#0000ff">Thionville</font> and Charlemagne upheld the pope&#39;s side. Charlemagne promptly demanded what the pope had demanded and Desiderius promptly swore never to comply. Charlemagne and his uncle <font color="#0000ff">Bernard</font> crossed the Alps in 773 and chased the Lombards back to <font color="#0000ff">Pavia, which they then besieged</font>. Charlemagne temporarily left the siege to deal with <font color="#0000ff">Adelchis</font>, son of Desiderius, who was raising an army at <font color="#0000ff">Verona</font>. The young prince was chased to the <font color="#0000ff">Adriatic</font> littoral and he fled to <font color="#0000ff">Constantinople</font> to plead for assistance from <font color="#0000ff">Constantine V</font>, who was waging war with <font color="#0000ff">Bulgaria</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The siege lasted until the spring of 774, when Charlemagne visited the pope in Rome. There he confirmed his father&#39;s grants of land, with some later chronicles claiming&mdash;falsely&mdash;that he also expanded them, granting <font color="#0000ff">Tuscany</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Emilia</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Venice</font>, and <font color="#0000ff">Corsica</font>. The pope granted him the title <em><font color="#0000ff">patrician</font></em>. He then returned to Pavia, where the Lombards were on the verge of surrendering.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In return for their lives, the Lombards surrendered and opened the gates in early summer. Desiderius was sent to the <font color="#0000ff">abbey</font> of <font color="#0000ff">Corbie</font> and his son Adelchis died in Constantinople a patrician. Charles, unusually, had himself crowned with the <font color="#0000ff">Iron Crown</font> and made the magnates of Lombardy do homage to him at Pavia. Only Duke <font color="#0000ff">Arechis II of Benevento</font> refused to submit and proclaimed independence. Charlemagne was now master of Italy as king of the Lombards. He left Italy with a garrison in Pavia and few Frankish counts in place that very year.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">There was still instability, however, in Italy. In 776, Dukes <font color="#0000ff">Hrodgaud of Friuli</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Hildeprand of Spoleto</font> rebelled. Charlemagne rushed back from <font color="#0000ff">Saxony</font> and defeated the duke of Friuli in battle. The duke was slain. The duke of Spoleto signed a treaty. Their co-conspirator, Arechis, was not subdued and Adelchis, their candidate in <font color="#0000ff">Byzantium</font>, never left that city. Northern Italy was now faithfully his.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Southern Italy</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 787 Charlemagne directed his attention towards <font color="#0000ff">Benevento</font>, where Arechis was reigning independently. He besieged <font color="#0000ff">Salerno</font> and Arechis submitted to <font color="#0000ff">vassalage</font>. However, with his death in 792, Benevento again proclaimed independence under his son <font color="#0000ff">Grimoald III</font>. Grimoald was attacked by armies of Charles or his sons many times, but Charlemagne himself never returned to the <font color="#0000ff">Mezzogiorno</font> and Grimoald never was forced to surrender to Frankish <font color="#0000ff">suzerainty</font>.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charles and his children</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">During the first peace of any substantial length (780&ndash;782), Charles began to appoint his sons to positions of authority within the realm, in the tradition of the kings and mayors of the past. In 781 he made his two younger sons kings, having them crowned by the Pope. The elder of these two, <font color="#0000ff">Carloman</font>, was made <font color="#0000ff">king of Italy</font>, taking the Iron Crown which his father had first worn in 774, and in the same ceremony was renamed &quot;Pippin.&quot; The younger of the two, <font color="#0000ff">Louis</font>, became <font color="#0000ff">king of Aquitaine</font>. Charlemagne ordered Pippin and Louis to be raised in the customs of their kingdoms, and he gave their regents some control of their subkingdoms, but real power was always in his hands, though he intended each to inherit their realm some day. Nor did he tolerate insubordination in his sons: in 792, he banished his eldest, though illegitimate, son, <font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Hunchback</font>, to the monastery of Pr&uuml;m, because the young man had joined a rebellion against him.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charles was determined to have his children educated, including his daughters, as he himself was not. His children were taught all the arts and his daughters were learned in the way of women. His sons took archery, horsemanship, and other outdoors activities.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The sons fought many wars on behalf of their father when they came of age. Charles was mostly preoccupied with the Bretons, whose border he shared and who insurrected on at least two occasions and were easily put down, but he was also sent against the Saxons on multiple occasions. In 805 and 806, he was sent into the B&ouml;hmerwald (modern <font color="#0000ff">Bohemia</font>) to deal with the Slavs living there (<font color="#0000ff">Czechs</font>). He subjected them to Frankish authority and devastated the valley of the Elbe, forcing a tribute on them. Pippin had to hold the <font color="#0000ff">Avar</font> and Beneventan borders, but also fought the <font color="#0000ff">Slavs</font> to his north. He was uniquely poised to fight the <font color="#0000ff">Byzantine Empire</font> when finally that conflict arose after Charlemagne&#39;s imperial coronation and a <font color="#0000ff">Venetian</font> rebellion. Finally, Louis was in charge of the <font color="#0000ff">Spanish March</font> and also went to southern Italy to fight the duke of Benevento on at least one occasion. He took Barcelona in a great siege in the year 797 (see below).</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne&#39;s attitude toward his daughters has been the subject of much discussion. He kept them at home with him, and refused to allow them to contract <font color="#0000ff">sacramental marriages</font> &ndash; possibly to prevent the creation of <font color="#0000ff">cadet</font> branches of the family to challenge the main line, as had been the case with <font color="#0000ff">Tassilo of Bavaria</font> &ndash; yet he tolerated their extramarital relationships, even rewarding their common-law husbands, and treasured the illegitimate grandchildren they produced for him. He also, apparently, refused to believe stories of their wild behaviour. After his death the surviving daughters were banished from the court by their brother, the pious Louis, to take up residence in the convents they had been bequeathed by their father. At least one of them, Bertha, had a recognised relationship, if not a marriage, with <font color="#0000ff">Angilbert</font>, a member of Charlemagne&#39;s court circle.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Spanish campaigns</span></strong><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">See also: <font color="#0000ff">Abbasid-Carolingian alliance</font></span></em></div><div><em></em></div><div><em></em><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Roncesvalles campaign</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none"><font color="#0000ff"> </font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Roland pledges his <font color="#0000ff">fealty</font> to Charlemagne in an illustration taken from a manuscript of a <em><font color="#0000ff">chanson de geste</font></em></span><font face="Calibri" size="3">&nbsp;</font></div><div><p style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 12pt 0in 10pt; line-height: normal"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">According to the Muslim historian <font color="#0000ff">Ibn al-Athir</font>, the Diet of Paderborn had received the representatives of the <font color="#0000ff">Muslim</font> rulers of <font color="#0000ff">Zaragoza</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Girona</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Barcelona</font>, and <font color="#0000ff">Huesca</font>. Their masters had been cornered in the <font color="#0000ff">Iberian</font> peninsula by <font color="#0000ff">Abd ar-Rahman I</font>, the <font color="#0000ff">Umayyad</font> <font color="#0000ff">emir of C&oacute;rdoba</font>. These <font color="#0000ff">Moorish</font> or &quot;Saracen&quot; rulers offered their homage to the great king of the Franks in return for military support. Seeing an opportunity to extend <font color="#0000ff">Christendom</font> and his own power and believing the Saxons to be a fully conquered nation, he agreed to go to <font color="#0000ff">Spain</font>.</span></p></div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 778, he led the Neustrian army across the Western <font color="#0000ff">Pyrenees</font>, while the Austrasians, Lombards, and Burgundians passed over the Eastern Pyrenees. The armies met at Zaragoza and Charlemagne received the homage of the Muslim rulers, Sulayman al-Arabi and Kasmin ibn Yusuf, but the city did not fall for him. Indeed, Charlemagne was facing the toughest battle of his career where the Muslims had the upper hand and forced him to retreat. He decided to go home, since he could not trust the <font color="#0000ff">Basques</font>, whom he had subdued by conquering <font color="#0000ff">Pamplona</font>. He turned to leave Iberia, but as he was passing through the Pass of <font color="#0000ff">Roncesvalles</font> one of the most famous events of his long reign occurred. The Basques fell on his rearguard and baggage train, utterly destroying it. The <font color="#0000ff">Battle of Roncevaux Pass</font>, less a battle than a mere skirmish, left many famous dead: among which were the <font color="#0000ff">seneschal</font> Eggihard, the count of the palace Anselm, and the <font color="#0000ff">warden</font> of the <font color="#0000ff">Breton March</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Roland</font>, inspiring the subsequent creation of the <font color="#0000ff">Song of Roland</font> (<em>La Chanson de Roland</em>).</span></div><div></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Wars with the Moors</span></strong></div><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'calibri','sans-serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Harun al-Rashid</font> receiving a delegation of Charlemagne in <font color="#0000ff">Baghdad</font>, by <span style="color: #cc2200">Julius K&ouml;ckert</span>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The conquest of Italy brought Charlemagne in contact with the <font color="#0000ff">Saracens</font> who, at the time, controlled the <font color="#0000ff">Mediterranean</font>. Pippin, his son, was much occupied with Saracens in Italy. Charlemagne conquered <font color="#0000ff">Corsica</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Sardinia</font> at an unknown date and in 799 the <font color="#0000ff">Balearic Islands</font>. The islands were often </span></div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">attacked by Saracen pirates, but the counts of <font color="#0000ff">Genoa</font> and Tuscany (<font color="#0000ff">Boniface</font>) kept them at bay with large fleets until the end of Charlemagne&#39;s reign. Charlemagne even had contact with the <font color="#0000ff">caliphal</font> court in <font color="#0000ff">Baghdad</font>. In 797 (or possibly 801), the caliph of Baghdad, <font color="#0000ff">Harun al-Rashid</font>, presented Charlemagne with an <font color="#0000ff">Asian elephant</font> named <font color="#0000ff">Abul-Abbas</font> and a <font color="#0000ff">clock</font>.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[9]</font></sup></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In <font color="#0000ff">Hispania</font> the struggle against the Moors continued unabated throughout the latter half of his reign. His son Louis was in charge of the Spanish border. In 785, his men captured Gerona permanently and extended Frankish control into the <font color="#0000ff">Catalan</font> littoral for the duration of Charlemagne&#39;s reign (and much longer, it remained nominally Frankish until the <font color="#0000ff">Treaty of Corbeil</font> in 1258). The Muslim chiefs in the northeast of <font color="#0000ff">Islamic Spain</font> were constantly revolting against C&oacute;rdoban authority and they often turned to the Franks for help. The Frankish border was slowly extended until 795, when Gerona, <font color="#0000ff">Cardona</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Ausona</font>, and <font color="#0000ff">Urgel</font> were united into the new <font color="#0000ff">Spanish March</font>, within the old duchy of <font color="#0000ff">Septimania</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 797 <font color="#0000ff">Barcelona</font>, the greatest city of the region, fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against C&oacute;rdoba and, failing, handed it to them. The <font color="#0000ff">Umayyad</font> authority recaptured it in 799. However, Louis of Aquitaine marched the entire army of his kingdom over the <font color="#0000ff">Pyrenees</font> and besieged it for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated. The Franks continued to press forwards against the <font color="#0000ff">emir</font>. They took <font color="#0000ff">Tarragona</font> in 809 and <font color="#0000ff">Tortosa</font> in 811. The last conquest brought them to the mouth of the <font color="#0000ff">Ebro</font> and gave them raiding access to <font color="#0000ff">Valencia</font>, prompting the Emir <font color="#0000ff">al-Hakam I</font> to recognise their conquests in 812.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Eastern campaigns</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Saxon Wars</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne was engaged in almost constant battle throughout his reign, often at the head of his elite <em><font color="#0000ff">scara</font></em> bodyguard squadrons, with his legendary sword <font color="#0000ff">Joyeuse</font> in hand. After thirty years of war and eighteen battles&mdash;the <font color="#0000ff">Saxon Wars</font>&mdash;he conquered <font color="#0000ff">Saxonia</font> and proceeded to convert the conquered to <font color="#0000ff">Roman Catholicism</font>, sometimes using force. </span><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Map showing Charlemagne&#39;s additions (in blue) to the Frankish Kingdom.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions. Nearest to Austrasia was <font color="#0000ff">Westphalia</font> and furthest away was <font color="#0000ff">Eastphalia</font>. In between these two kingdoms was that of <font color="#0000ff">Engria</font> and north of these three, at the base of the <font color="#0000ff">Jutland</font> peninsula, was <font color="#0000ff">Nordalbingia</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In his first campaign, Charlemagne forced the Engrians in 773 to submit and cut down an <font color="#0000ff">Irminsul</font> pillar near <font color="#0000ff">Paderborn</font>. The campaign was cut short by his first expedition to Italy. He returned in the year 775, marching through Westphalia and conquering the Saxon <span style="color: #cc2200">fort of Sigiburg</span>. He then crossed Engria, where he defeated the Saxons again. Finally, in Eastphalia, he defeated a Saxon force, and its leader <span style="color: #cc2200">Hessi</span> converted to <font color="#0000ff">Christianity</font>. He returned through Westphalia, leaving encampments at Sigiburg and <font color="#0000ff">Eresburg</font>, which had, up until then, been important Saxon bastions. All Saxony but Nordalbingia was under his control, but Saxon resistance had not ended.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Following his campaign in Italy subjugating the dukes of Friuli and Spoleto, Charlemagne returned very rapidly to Saxony in 776, where a rebellion had destroyed his fortress at Eresburg. The Saxons were once again brought to heel, but their main leader, duke <font color="#0000ff">Widukind</font>, managed to escape to Denmark, home of his wife. Charlemagne built a new camp at <font color="#0000ff">Karlstadt</font>. In 777, he called a national diet at Paderborn to integrate Saxony fully into the Frankish kingdom. Many Saxons were baptised.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In the summer of 779, he again invaded Saxony and reconquered Eastphalia, Engria, and Westphalia. At a diet near <font color="#0000ff">Lippe</font>, he divided the land into missionary districts and himself assisted in several mass baptisms (780). He then returned to Italy and, for the first time, there was no immediate Saxon revolt. In 780 Charlemagne decreed the death penalty for all Saxons who failed to be baptised, who failed to keep Christian festivals, and who cremated their dead. Saxony had peace from 780 to 782.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne (742-814) receiving the submission of <font color="#0000ff">Witikind</font> at <font color="#0000ff">Paderborn</font> in 785, by <font color="#0000ff">Ary Scheffer</font> (1795-1858). <font color="#0000ff">Versailles</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">He returned in 782 to Saxony and instituted a code of law and appointed counts, both Saxon and Frank. The laws were <font color="#0000ff">draconian</font> on religious issues, and the indigenous forms of <font color="#0000ff">Germanic polytheism</font> were gravely threatened by Christianisation. This stirred a renewal of the old conflict. That year, in autumn, Widukind returned and led a new revolt, which resulted in several assaults on the church. In response, at <font color="#0000ff">Verden</font> in <font color="#0000ff">Lower Saxony</font>, Charlemagne allegedly ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who had been caught practising their native paganism after conversion to Christianity, known as the <font color="#0000ff">Massacre of Verden</font> (&quot;Verdener Blutgericht&quot;). The massacre triggered three years of renewed bloody warfare (783-785). During this war the <font color="#0000ff">Frisians</font> were also finally subdued and a large part of their fleet was burned. The war ended with <font color="#0000ff">Widukind</font> accepting baptism.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Thereafter, the Saxons maintained the peace for seven years, but in 792 the Westphalians once again rose against their conquerors. The Eastphalians and Nordalbingians joined them in 793, but the insurrection did not catch on and was put down by 794. An Engrian rebellion followed in 796, but Charlemagne&#39;s personal presence and the presence of Christian Saxons and <font color="#0000ff">Slavs</font> quickly crushed it. The last insurrection of the independence-minded people occurred in 804, more than thirty years after Charlemagne&#39;s first campaign against them. This time, the most unruly of them, the Nordalbingians, found themselves effectively disempowered from rebellion. According to Einhard:</span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.</font></span><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Submission of Bavaria</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 788, Charlemagne turned his attention to <font color="#0000ff">Bavaria</font>. He claimed Tassilo was an unfit ruler on account of his oath-breaking. The charges were trumped up, but Tassilo was deposed anyway and put in the monastery of <font color="#0000ff">Jumi&egrave;ges</font>. In 794, he was made to renounce any claim to Bavaria for himself and his family (the <font color="#0000ff">Agilolfings</font>) at the <font color="#0000ff">synod</font> of <font color="#0000ff">Frankfurt</font>. Bavaria was subdivided into Frankish counties, like Saxony.</span><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Avar campaigns</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 788, the <font color="#0000ff">Avars</font>, a pagan Asian horde which had settled down in what is today <font color="#0000ff">Hungary</font> (Einhard called them <font color="#0000ff">Huns</font>), invaded Friuli and Bavaria. Charles was preoccupied until 790 with other things, but in that year, he marched down the <font color="#0000ff">Danube</font> into their territory and ravaged it to the <font color="#0000ff">Raab</font>. Then, a Lombard army under Pippin marched into the <font color="#0000ff">Drava</font> valley and ravaged <font color="#0000ff">Pannonia</font>. The campaigns would have continued if the Saxons had not revolted again in 792, breaking seven years of peace.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">For the next two years, Charles was occupied with the Slavs against the Saxons. Pippin and Duke <font color="#0000ff">Eric of Friuli</font> continued, however, to assault the Avars&#39; ring-shaped strongholds. The great Ring of the Avars, their capital fortress, was taken twice. The booty was sent to Charlemagne at his capital, <font color="#0000ff">Aachen</font>, and redistributed to all his followers and even to foreign rulers, including King <font color="#0000ff">Offa of Mercia</font>. Soon the Avar <font color="#0000ff">tuduns</font> had thrown in the towel and travelled to Aachen to subject themselves to Charlemagne as vassals and Christians. This Charlemagne accepted and sent one native chief, baptised Abraham, back to Avaria with the ancient title of <font color="#0000ff">khagan</font>. Abraham kept his people in line, but in 800 the <font color="#0000ff">Bulgarians</font> under <font color="#0000ff">Krum</font> swept the Avar state away. In the 10th century, the <font color="#0000ff">Magyars</font> settled the Pannonian plain and presented a new threat to Charlemagne&#39;s descendants.</span><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Slav expeditions</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 789, in recognition of his new pagan neighbours, the <font color="#0000ff">Slavs</font>, Charlemagne marched an Austrasian-Saxon army across the <font color="#0000ff">Elbe</font> into <font color="#0000ff">Obotrite</font> territory. The Slavs immediately submitted under their leader Witzin. Charlemagne then accepted the surrender of the <font color="#0000ff">Wiltzes</font> under Dragovit and demanded many hostages and the permission to send, unmolested, missionaries into the pagan region. The army marched to the <font color="#0000ff">Baltic</font> before turning around and marching to the Rhine with much booty and no harassment. The tributary Slavs became loyal allies. In 795, the peace broken by the Saxons, the Abotrites and Wiltzes rose in arms with their new master against the Saxons. Witzin died in battle and Charlemagne avenged him by harrying the Eastphalians on the Elbe. Thrasuco, his successor, led his men to conquest over the Nordalbingians and handed their leaders over to Charlemagne, who greatly honoured him. The Abotrites remained loyal until Charles&#39; death and fought later against the Danes.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne also directed his attention to the <font color="#0000ff">Slavs</font> to the south of the Avar khaganate: the <font color="#0000ff">Carantanians</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Carniolans</font>. These people were subdued by the Lombards and Bavarii and made tributaries, but never incorporated into the Frankish state.</span><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">I</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">mperium</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Imperial diplomacy</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Charlemagne&#39;s chapel</font> at <font color="#0000ff">Aachen Cathedral</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 799, <font color="#0000ff">Pope Leo III</font> had been mistreated by the Romans, who tried to put out his eyes and tear out his tongue. Leo escaped, and fled to Charlemagne at Paderborn, asking him to intervene in Rome and restore him. Charlemagne, advised by <font color="#0000ff">Alcuin of York</font>, agreed to travel to Rome, doing so in November 800 and holding a council on December 1. On 23 December Leo swore an oath of innocence. At <font color="#0000ff">Mass</font>, on Christmas Day (25 December), when Charlemagne knelt at the altar to pray, the pope <font color="#0000ff">crowned</font> him <em>Imperator Romanorum</em> (&quot;Emperor of the Romans&quot;) in <font color="#0000ff">Saint Peter&#39;s Basilica</font>. In so doing, the pope was effectively attempting to transfer the office from <font color="#0000ff">Constantinople</font> to Charles. Einhard says that Charlemagne </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">was ignorant of the pope&#39;s intent and did not want any such coronation:</span></div><div><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">[H]e at first had such an aversion that he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that they [the imperial titles] were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope.</font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Many modern scholars<sup>[<em><font color="#0000ff">who?</font></em>]</sup> suggest that Charlemagne was indeed aware of the coronation; certainly he cannot have missed the bejeweled crown waiting on the altar when he came to pray. In any event, he used these circumstances to claim that he was the renewer of the Roman Empire, which had apparently fallen into degradation under the <font color="#0000ff">Byzantines</font>. In his official charters from 801 onward, Charles preferred the style <em>Karolus serenissimus Augustus a Deo coronatus magnus pacificus imperator Romanum gubernans imperium</em> (&quot;Charles, most serene Augustus crowned by God, the great, peaceful emperor ruling the Roman empire&quot;) to the more direct <em>Imperator Romanorum</em> (&quot;Emperor of the Romans&quot;).<sup><font color="#0000ff">[10]</font></sup></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The <font color="#0000ff">Iconoclasm</font> of the <font color="#0000ff">Isaurian Dynasty</font> and resulting religious conflicts with the Empress <font color="#0000ff">Irene</font>, sitting on the throne in Constantinople in 800, were probably the chief causes of the pope&#39;s desire to formally acclaim Charles as Roman Emperor. He also most certainly desired to increase the influence of the papacy, honour his saviour Charlemagne, and solve the constitutional issues then most troubling to European jurists in an era when Rome was not in the hands of an emperor. Thus, Charlemagne&#39;s assumption of the imperial title was not an usurpation in the eyes of the Franks or Italians. It was, however, in Byzantium, where it was protested by Irene and her successor <font color="#0000ff">Nicephorus I</font>&mdash;neither of whom had any great effect in enforcing their protests.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The Byzantines, however, still held several territories in Italy: Venice (what was left of the <font color="#0000ff">Exarchate of Ravenna</font>), <font color="#0000ff">Reggio</font> (in <font color="#0000ff">Calabria</font>), <font color="#0000ff">Brindisi</font> (in <font color="#0000ff">Apulia</font>), and <font color="#0000ff">Naples</font> (the <em><font color="#0000ff">Ducatus Neapolitanus</font></em>). These regions remained outside of Frankish hands until 804, when the Venetians, torn by infighting, transferred their allegiance to the Iron Crown of Pippin, Charles&#39; son. The <em><font color="#0000ff">Pax Nicephori</font></em> ended. Nicephorus ravaged the coasts with a fleet and the only instance of war between the Byzantines and the Franks, as it was, began. It lasted until 810, when the pro-Byzantine party in Venice gave their city back to the Byzantine Emperor and the two emperors of Europe made peace: Charlemagne received the <font color="#0000ff">Istrian</font> peninsula and in 812 the emperor <font color="#0000ff">Michael I Rhangabes</font> recognised his status as Emperor,<sup><font color="#0000ff">[11]</font></sup> although not necessarily as &quot;Emperor of the Romans&quot;.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[12]</font></sup></span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Danish attacks</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">After the conquest of Nordalbingia, the Frankish frontier was brought into contact with Scandinavia. The <font color="#0000ff">pagan</font> Danes, &quot;a race almost unknown to his ancestors, but destined to be only too well known to his sons&quot; as <font color="#0000ff">Charles Oman</font> described them, inhabiting the <font color="#0000ff">Jutland</font> peninsula had heard many stories from Widukind and his allies who had taken refuge with them about the dangers of the Franks and the fury which their Christian king could direct against pagan neighbours.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 808, the king of the Danes, <font color="#0000ff">Godfred</font>, built the vast <font color="#0000ff">Danevirke</font> across the isthmus of <font color="#0000ff">Schleswig</font>. This defence, last employed in the Danish-Prussian War of 1864, was at its beginning a 30&nbsp;km (19&nbsp;mi) long earthenwork rampart. The Danevirke protected Danish land and gave Godfred the opportunity to harass <font color="#0000ff">Frisia</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Flanders</font> with pirate raids. He also subdued the Frank-allied Wiltzes and fought the Abotrites.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Godfred invaded Frisia and joked of visiting Aachen, but was murdered before he could do any more, either by a Frankish assassin or by one of his own men. Godfred was succeeded by his nephew <font color="#0000ff">Hemming</font>, who concluded the <font color="#0000ff">Treaty of Heiligen</font> with Charlemagne in late 811.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Death</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Portion of the 814 death <font color="#0000ff">shroud</font> of Charlemagne. It represents a <font color="#0000ff">quadriga</font> and was manufactured in <font color="#0000ff">Constantinople</font>.</span> <p style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal">&nbsp;</p><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 813, Charlemagne called <font color="#0000ff">Louis the Pious</font>, king of <font color="#0000ff">Aquitaine</font>, his only surviving legitimate son, to his court. There Charlemagne crowned his son with his own hands as co-emperor and sent him back to Aquitaine. He then spent the autumn hunting before returning to Aachen on 1 November. In January, he fell ill with <font color="#0000ff">pleurisy</font>.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[13]</font></sup> He took to his bed on 21 January and as <font color="#0000ff">Einhard</font> tells it:</span></div><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">He died January twenty-eighth, the seventh day from the time that he took to his bed, at nine o&#39;clock in the morning, after partaking of the </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Holy Communion</font><font size="3">, in the seventy-second year of his age and the forty-seventh of his reign.</font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">He was buried on the day of his death, in <font color="#0000ff">Aachen Cathedral</font>, although the cold weather and the nature of his illness made such a hurried burial unnecessary. The earliest surviving <em><font color="#0000ff">planctus</font></em>, the <em><font color="#0000ff">Planctus de obitu Karoli</font></em>, was composed by a monk of <font color="#0000ff">Bobbio</font>, which he had patronised.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[14]</font></sup> A later story, told by Otho of Lomello, Count of the Palace at Aachen in the time of <font color="#0000ff">Otto III</font>, would claim that he and Emperor Otto had discovered Charlemagne&#39;s tomb: the emperor, they claimed, was seated upon a throne, wearing a crown and holding a sceptre, his flesh almost entirely incorrupt. In 1165, <font color="#0000ff">Frederick I</font> re-opened the tomb again, and placed the emperor in a sarcophagus beneath the floor of the cathedral.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[15]</font></sup> In 1215 <font color="#0000ff">Frederick II</font> would re-inter him in a casket made of gold and silver.</span></div><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'calibri','sans-serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Frederick II&#39;s</font> gold and silver casket for Charlemagne</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne&#39;s death greatly affected many of his subjects, particularly those of the literary clique who had surrounded him at Aachen. An anonymous monk of Bobbio lamented:</span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">From the lands where the sun rises to western shores, People are crying and wailing...the Franks, the Romans, all Christians, are stung </font></span></div><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">with mourning and great worry...the young and old, glorious nobles, all lament the loss of their Caesar...the world laments the death of Charles...O Christ, you who govern the heavenly host, grant a peaceful place to Charles in your kingdom. Alas for miserable me.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[16]</font></sup></font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">He was succeeded by his surviving son, Louis, who had been crowned the previous year. His empire lasted only another generation in its entirety; its division, according to custom, between Louis&#39;s own sons after their father&#39;s death laid the foundation for the modern states of France and Germany.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Administration</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">As an administrator, Charlemagne stands out for his many reforms: <font color="#0000ff">monetary</font>, governmental, military, cultural and <font color="#0000ff">ecclesiastical</font>. He is the main protagonist of the &quot;Carolingian Renaissance.&quot;</span><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Military</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">It has long been held that the dominance of Charlemagne&#39;s military was based on a &quot;<font color="#0000ff">cavalry</font> revolution&quot; lead by <font color="#0000ff">Charles Martel</font> in 730s. However, the <font color="#0000ff">stirrup</font>, which made the &#39;shock cavalry&#39; <font color="#0000ff">lance</font> charge possible, was not introduced to the Frankish kingdom until the late eighth century.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[17]</font></sup> Instead, Charlemagne&#39;s success rested primarily on novel <font color="#0000ff">siege</font> technologies and excellent logistics.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[18]</font></sup> However, large numbers of horses were used by the Frankish military during the age of Charlemagne. This was because <font color="#0000ff">horses provided a quick, long-distance method of transporting troops</font>, which was critical to building and maintaining such a large empire.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[17</font></sup></span></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><sup></sup></span></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><sup><font color="#0000ff">]</font></sup></span><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Economic and monetary reforms</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Monogram</font> of Charlemagne, from the subscription of a royal diploma: &quot;</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Signum (monogr.: KAROLVS) Caroli gloriosissimi regis</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&quot;</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne had an important role in determining the immediate economic future of Europe. Pursuing his father&#39;s reforms, Charlemagne abolished the monetary system based on the gold </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">sou</font></span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, and he and the <font color="#0000ff">Anglo-Saxon King</font> <font color="#0000ff">Offa of Mercia</font> took up the system set in place by Pippin. There were strong pragmatic reasons for this abandonment of a gold standard, notably a shortage of gold itself, a direct consequence of the conclusion of peace with Byzantium and the ceding of Venice and Sicily, and the loss of their trade routes to Africa and to the east. This standardisation also had the effect of economically harmonising and unifying the complex array of currencies in use at the commencement of his reign, thus simplifying trade and commerce.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne, denier, <font color="#0000ff">Tours</font>, 793-812.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">He established a new standard, the </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">livre carolinienne</font></span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> (from the Latin </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><em><font color="#0000ff">libra</font></em></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, the modern <font color="#0000ff">pound</font>), and based upon a pound of <font color="#0000ff">silver</font> &ndash; a unit of both money and weight &ndash; which was worth 20 sous (from the Latin </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">solidus</font></span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> [which was primarily an accounting device, and never actually minted], the modern <font color="#0000ff">shilling</font>) or 240 </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">deniers</font></span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> (from the Latin </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">denarius</font></span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">, the modern <font color="#0000ff">penny</font>). During this period, the </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">livre</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> and the </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">sou</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> were counting units, only the </span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">denier</span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> was a coin of the realm.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne instituted principles for <font color="#0000ff">accounting practice</font> by means of the <span style="color: #cc2200">Capitulare de villis</span> of 802, which laid down strict rules for the way in which incomes and expenses were to be recorded.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The lending of money for interest was prohibited, strengthened in 814, when Charlemagne introduced the <em><font color="#0000ff">Capitulary for the Jews</font></em>, a draconian prohibition on Jews engaging in money-lending.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In addition to this macro-oriented reform of the economy of his empire, Charlemagne also performed a significant number of microeconomic reforms, such as direct control of prices and levies on certain goods and commodities.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne applied the system to much of the European continent, and Offa&#39;s standard was voluntarily adopted by much of <font color="#0000ff">England</font>. After Charlemagne&#39;s death, continental coinage degraded and most of Europe resorted to using the continued high quality English coin until about 1100.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Education reforms</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">A part of Charlemagne&#39;s success as warrior and administrator can be traced to his admiration for learning. His reign and the era it ushered in are often referred to as the <font color="#0000ff">Carolingian Renaissance</font> because of the flowering of scholarship, literature, art, and <font color="#0000ff">architecture</font> which characterise it. Charlemagne, brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries (especially Visigothic Spain, Anglo-Saxon England and Lombard Italy) due to his vast conquests, greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book-copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Indeed, the earliest manuscripts available for many ancient texts are Carolingian. It is almost certain that a text which survived to the Carolingian age survives still. The pan-European nature of Charlemagne&#39;s influence is indicated by the origins of many of the men who worked for him: <font color="#0000ff">Alcuin</font>, an <font color="#0000ff">Anglo-Saxon</font> from <font color="#0000ff">York</font>; <font color="#0000ff">Theodulf</font>, a <font color="#0000ff">Visigoth</font>, probably from <font color="#0000ff">Septimania</font>; <font color="#0000ff">Paul the Deacon</font>, Lombard; <font color="#0000ff">Peter of Pisa</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Paulinus of Aquileia</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Italians</font>; and <font color="#0000ff">Angilbert</font>, <span style="color: #cc2200">Angilram</span>, <font color="#0000ff">Einhard</font> and <font color="#0000ff">Waldo of Reichenau</font>, Franks.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the <font color="#0000ff">liberal arts</font> at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself (in a time when even leaders who promoted education did not take time to learn themselves) under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialectic (logic) and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. His great scholarly failure, as Einhard relates, was his inability to write: when in his old age he began attempts to learn &ndash; practicing the formation of letters in his bed during his free time on books and wax tablets he hid under his pillow &ndash; &quot;his effort came too late in life and achieved little success&quot;, and his ability to read &ndash; which Einhard is silent about, and which no contemporary source supports &ndash; has also been called into question.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[19]</font></sup></span><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Church reforms</span></strong><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">See also: <font color="#0000ff">Charlemagne and church music</font></span></em></div><div><em></em></div><div><em></em><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Writing reforms</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span></div><div></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Page from the <font color="#0000ff">Lorsch Gospels</font> of Charlemagne&#39;s reign</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">During Charles&#39; reign, the <font color="#0000ff">Roman half uncial</font> script and its cursive version, which had given rise to various continental <font color="#0000ff">minuscule</font> scripts, were combined with features from the <font color="#0000ff">insular scripts</font> that were being used in <font color="#0000ff">Irish</font> and <font color="#0000ff">English</font> monasteries. <font color="#0000ff">Carolingian minuscule</font> was created partly under the patronage of Charlemagne. Alcuin of York, who ran the palace school and <font color="#0000ff">scriptorium</font> at Aachen, was probably a chief influence in this. The revolutionary character of the Carolingian reform, however, can be over-emphasised; efforts at taming the crabbed Merovingian and Germanic hands had been underway before Alcuin arrived at Aachen. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, and later from the influential scriptorium at <font color="#0000ff">Tours</font>, where Alcuin retired as an abbot.</span></div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span></strong><div><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Political reforms</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne engaged in many reforms of Frankish governance, but he continued also in many traditional practices, such as the division of the kingdom among sons.</span><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Organisation</span></strong><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Main article: <font color="#0000ff">Government of the Carolingian Empire</font></span></em><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The Carolingian king exercised the <em><span style="color: #cc2200">bannum</span></em>, the right to rule and command. He had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the Church and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organise the kingdom, church and nobility around him, however, it was entirely dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects.</span></div><div></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Imperial coronation</span></strong></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Historians have debated for centuries whether Charlemagne was aware of the Pope&#39;s intent to crown him Emperor prior to the coronation (Charlemagne declared that he would not have entered Saint Peter&#39;s had he known), but that debate has often obscured the more significant question of <em>why</em> the Pope granted the title and why Charlemagne chose to accept it once he did.</span></div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Roger Collins</font> points out<sup><font color="#0000ff">[20]</font></sup> &quot;That the motivation behind the acceptance of the imperial title was a romantic and antiquarian interest in reviving the Roman empire is highly unlikely.&quot; For one thing, such romance would not have appealed either to Franks or Roman Catholics at the turn of the ninth century, both of whom viewed the <font color="#0000ff">Classical</font> heritage of the Roman Empire with distrust. The Franks took pride in having &quot;fought against and thrown from their shoulders the heavy yoke of the Romans&quot; and &quot;from the knowledge gained in baptism, clothed in gold and precious stones the bodies of the holy martyrs whom the Romans had killed by fire, by the sword and by wild animals&quot;, as Pippin III described it in a law of 763 or 764 (Collins 151). Furthermore, the new title&mdash;carrying with it the risk that the new emperor would &quot;make drastic changes to the traditional styles and procedures of government&quot; or &quot;concentrate his attentions on Italy or on Mediterranean concerns more generally&quot;&mdash;risked alienating the Frankish leadership.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[21]</font></sup></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">For both the Pope and Charlemagne, the Roman Empire remained a significant power in European politics at this time, and continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with borders not very far south of the city of Rome itself&mdash;this is the empire historiography has labelled the Byzantine Empire, for its capital was Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and its people and rulers were <font color="#0000ff">Greek</font>; it was a thoroughly Hellenic state. Indeed, Charlemagne was usurping the prerogatives of the Roman Emperor in Constantinople simply by sitting in judgement over the Pope in the first place:</span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">By whom, however, could he [the Pope] be tried? Who, in other words, was qualified to pass judgement on the Vicar of Christ? In normal circumstances the only conceivable answer to that question would have been the Emperor at Constantinople; but the imperial throne was at this moment occupied by Irene. That the Empress was notorious for having blinded and murdered her own son was, in the minds of both Leo and Charles, almost immaterial: it was enough that she was a woman. The female sex was known to be incapable of governing, and by the old Salic tradition was debarred from doing so. As far as Western Europe was concerned, the Throne of the Emperors was vacant: Irene&#39;s claim to it was merely an additional proof, if any were needed, of the degradation into which the so-called Roman Empire had fallen. &mdash;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">John Julius Norwich</font><font size="3">,&nbsp;</font></span><span style="font-size: 9.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Byzantium: The Early Centuries, pg. 378</span></div><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'calibri','sans-serif'"><br></span><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Coronation of an idealised king, depicted in the Sacramentary of <font color="#0000ff">Charles the Bald</font> (about 870)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">For the Pope, then, there was &quot;no living Emperor at the that time&quot; (Norwich 379), though <font color="#0000ff">Henri Pirenne</font> (<em>Mohammed and Charlemagne</em>, pg. 234n) disputes this saying that the coronation &quot;was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople.&quot; Nonetheless, the Pope took the extraordinary step of creating one. The papacy had since 727 been in conflict with Irene&#39;s predecessors in Constantinople over a </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">number of issues, chiefly the continued Byzantine adherence to the doctrine of iconoclasm, the destruction of Christian images; while from 750, the secular power of the Byzantine Empire in central Italy had been nullified. By bestowing the Imperial crown upon Charlemagne, the Pope arrogated to himself &quot;the right to appoint ... the Emperor of the Romans, ... establishing the imperial crown as his own personal gift but simultaneously granting himself implicit superiority over the Emperor whom he had created.&quot; And &quot;because the Byzantines had proved so unsatisfactory from every point of view&mdash;political, military and doctrinal&mdash;he would select a westerner: the one man who by his wisdom and statesmanship and the vastness of his dominions ... stood out head and shoulders above his contemporaries.&quot;</span></div><div></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">With Charlemagne&#39;s coronation, therefore, &quot;the Roman Empire remained, so far as either of them [Charlemagne and Leo] were concerned, one and indivisible, with Charles as its Emperor&quot;, though there can have been &quot;little doubt that the coronation, with all that it implied, would be furiously contested in Constantinople.&quot; (Norwich, <em>Byzantium: The Apogee</em>, pg. 3) How realistic either Charlemagne or the Pope felt it to be that the people of Constantinople would ever accept the King of the Franks as their Emperor, we cannot know; Alcuin speaks hopefully in his letters of an <em>Imperium Christianum</em> (&quot;Christian Empire&quot;), wherein, &quot;just as the inhabitants of the [Roman Empire] had been united by a common Roman citizenship&quot;, presumably this new empire would be united by a common Christian faith (Collins 151), certainly this is the view of Pirenne when he says &quot;Charles was the Emperor of the <em>ecclesia</em> as the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church&quot; (Pirenne 233).</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">19th century depiction of the imperial <font color="#0000ff">coronation</font> of Charlemagne</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">What we <em>do</em> know, from the Byzantine chronicler <font color="#0000ff">Theophanes</font> (Collins 153), is that Charlemagne&#39;s reaction to his coronation was to take the initial steps toward securing the Constantinopolitan throne by sending envoys of marriage to Irene, and that Irene reacted somewhat favorably to them. </span></div><div></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Only when the people of Constantinople reacted to Irene&#39;s failure to immediately rebuff the proposal by deposing her and replacing her with one of her ministers, Nicephorus I, did Charlemagne drop any ambitions toward the Byzantine throne and begin minimising his new Imperial title, and instead return to describing himself primarily as <em>rex Francorum et Langobardum</em>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The title of emperor remained in his family for years to come, however, as brothers fought over who had the supremacy in the Frankish state. The papacy itself never forgot the title nor abandoned the right to bestow it. When the family of Charles ceased to produce worthy heirs, the pope gladly crowned whichever Italian magnate could best protect him from his local enemies. This devolution led, as could have been expected, to the dormancy of the title for almost forty years (924-962). Finally, in 962, in a radically different Europe from Charlemagne&#39;s, a new Roman Emperor was crowned in Rome by a grateful pope. This emperor, <font color="#0000ff">Otto the Great</font>, brought the title into the hands the kings of Germany for almost a millennium, for it was to become the Holy Roman Empire, a true imperial successor to Charles, if not <font color="#0000ff">Augustus</font>.</span><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Divisio regnorum</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">In 806, Charlemagne first made provision for the traditional division of the empire on his death. For Charles the Younger he designated Austrasia and Neustria, Saxony, Burgundy, and <font color="#0000ff">Thuringia</font>. To Pippin he gave Italy, Bavaria, and <font color="#0000ff">Swabia</font>. Louis received Aquitaine, the Spanish March, and <font color="#0000ff">Provence</font>. There was no mention of the imperial title however, which has led to the suggestion that, at that particular time, Charlemagne regarded the title as an honorary achievement which held no hereditary significance.</span> <p style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">This division might have worked, but it was never to be tested. Pippin died in 810 and Charles in 811. Charlemagne then reconsidered the matter, and in 813, crowned his youngest son, Louis, co-emperor and co-King of the Franks, granting him a half-share of the empire and the rest upon </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne&#39;s own death. The only part of the Empire which Louis was not promised was Italy, which Charlemagne specifically bestowed upon Pippin&#39;s illegitimate son <font color="#0000ff">Bernard</font>.</span><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span></strong></p></div><div><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Cultural significance</span></strong></div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne had an immediate afterlife. The author of the <em><font color="#0000ff">Visio Karoli Magni</font></em> written around 865 uses facts gathered apparently from Einhard and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne&#39;s family after the dissensions of civil war (840&ndash;43) as the basis for a visionary tale of Charles&#39; meeting with a prophetic spectre in a dream.</span><font face="Calibri" size="3">&nbsp;</font></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne, being a model <font color="#0000ff">knight</font> as one of the <font color="#0000ff">Nine Worthies</font>,</span><span><font face="Calibri" size="3"> </font></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">enjoyed an important afterlife in European culture. One of the great medieval <font color="#0000ff">literary cycles</font>, the <font color="#0000ff">Charlemagne cycle</font> or the <em><font color="#0000ff">Matter of France</font></em>, centres on the deeds of Charlemagne&mdash; the King with the Grizzly Beard of <em><font color="#0000ff">Roland</font></em> fame&mdash; and his historical commander of&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">the border with <font color="#0000ff">Brittany</font>, <font color="#0000ff">Roland</font>, and the <font color="#0000ff">paladins</font> who are analogous to the knights of the <font color="#0000ff">Round Table</font> or <font color="#0000ff">King Arthur</font>&#39;s court. Their tales constitute the first <em><font color="#0000ff">chansons de geste</font></em>.</span></div><p><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne himself was accorded sainthood inside the Holy Roman Empire after the twelfth century. His <font color="#0000ff">canonisation</font> by <font color="#0000ff">Antipope Paschal III</font>, to gain the favour of <font color="#0000ff">Frederick Barbarossa</font> in 1165, was never recognised by the <font color="#0000ff">Holy See</font>, which annulled all of Paschal&#39;s ordinances at the <font color="#0000ff">Third Lateran Council</font> in 1179. However, his <font color="#0000ff">beatification</font> has been acknowledged as <em><font color="#0000ff">cultus confirmed</font></em> and is celebrated on January 28. In <font color="#0000ff">the Divine Comedy</font> the spirit of Charlemagne appears to Dante in the Heaven of Mars, among the other &quot;warriors of the faith.&quot;</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne is sometimes credited with supporting the insertion of the <em><font color="#0000ff">filioque</font></em> into the <font color="#0000ff">Nicene Creed</font>. The Franks had inherited a Visigothic tradition of referring to the Holy Spirit as deriving from God the Father <em>and Son</em> (<em>Filioque</em>), and under Charlemagne, the Franks challenged the 381 Council of Constantinople proclamation that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone. <font color="#0000ff">Pope Leo III</font> rejected this notion, and had the Nicene Creed carved into the doors of <font color="#0000ff">Old St. Peter&#39;s Basilica</font> without the offending phrase; the Frankish insistence lead to bad relations between Rome and Francia. Later, the <font color="#0000ff">Roman Catholic Church</font> would adopt the phrase, leading to dispute between Rome and Constantinople. Some see this as one of many pre-cursors to the <font color="#0000ff">East-West Schism</font> centuries later.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[22]</font></sup></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">French volunteers in the Wehrmacht and later Waffen-SS during World War II were organised in a unit called <em><font color="#0000ff">33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French)</font></em>. A German Waffen-SS unit used &quot;Karl der Gro&szlig;e&quot; for some time in 1943, but then chose the name <em><font color="#0000ff">10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg</font></em> instead.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (called the <em><font color="#0000ff">Karlspreis</font> der Stadt Aachen</em>) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to &quot;personages of merit who have promoted the idea of western unity by their political, economic and literary endeavours.&quot;<sup><font color="#0000ff">[23]</font></sup> Winners of the prize include <font color="#0000ff">Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi</font>, the founder of the pan-European movement, <font color="#0000ff">Alcide De Gasperi</font>, and <font color="#0000ff">Winston Churchill</font>.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne is memorably quoted by Dr Henry Jones Sr. (played by <font color="#0000ff">Sean Connery</font>) in the film, <em><font color="#0000ff">Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade</font></em>. Immediately after using his umbrella to induce a flock of seagulls to smash through the glass cockpit of a pursuing German fighter plane, Henry Jones remarks &quot;I suddenly remembered my Charlemagne: &#39;Let my armies be the rocks and the trees and the birds in the sky&#39;.&quot; Despite the quote&#39;s popularity since the movie, there is no evidence that Charlemagne actually said this.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[24]</font></sup></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">The Economist</font>, the weekly news and international affairs newspaper, features a one page article every week entitled &quot;Charlemagne&quot;, focusing on European government. Since 2007, the column has been written by <font color="#0000ff">David Rennie</font>.</span></p><p><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Family</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Marriages and heirs</span></strong></p><p><strong></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charlemagne had twenty children over the course of his life with eight of his ten known wives or concubines. Nonetheless, he only had four legitimate grandsons, the four sons of his third son, Louis. In addition, he had a grandson (<font color="#0000ff">Bernard of Italy</font>, only son of his third son, <font color="#0000ff">Pippin of Italy</font>), who was born illegitimate but included in the line of inheritance. So, despite twenty children, the claimants to his inheritance were few.</span> </p><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His first relationship was with <font color="#0000ff">Himiltrude</font>. The nature of this relationship is variously described as <font color="#0000ff">concubinage</font>, a legal marriage or as a <font color="#0000ff">Friedelehe</font>.<sup><font color="#0000ff">[25]</font></sup> (Charlemagne put her aside when he married Desiderata.) The union with Himiltrude produced two children: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Amaudru, a daughter<sup><font color="#0000ff">[26]</font></sup> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Hunchback</font> (c. 769-811) </span></li></ul></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">After her, his first wife was <font color="#0000ff">Desiderata</font>, daughter of <font color="#0000ff">Desiderius</font>, king of the <font color="#0000ff">Lombards</font>; married in 770, annulled in 771 </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His second wife was <font color="#0000ff">Hildegard</font> (757 or 758-783), married 771, died 783. By her he had nine children: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Charles the Younger</font> (c.772-4 December 811), Duke of Maine, and crowned <font color="#0000ff">King of the Franks</font> on 25 December 800 </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Carloman, renamed Pippin</font> (April 773-8 July 810), <font color="#0000ff">King of Italy</font> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Adalhaid (774), who was born whilst her parents were on campaign in Italy. She was sent back to Francia, but died before reaching Lyons </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Rotrude</font> (or Hruodrud) (775-6 June 810) </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Louis</font> (778-20 June 840), twin of Lothair, <font color="#0000ff">King of Aquitaine</font> since 781, crowned <font color="#0000ff">Holy Roman Emperor</font> in 813, senior Emperor from 814 </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Lothair (778-6 February 779/780), twin of Louis, he died in infancy<sup><font color="#0000ff">[27]</font></sup> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span style="color: #cc2200">Bertha</span> (779-826) </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Gisela</font> (781-808) </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Hildegarde (782-783) </span></li></ul></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His third wife was <font color="#0000ff">Fastrada</font>, married 784, died 794. By her he had: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Theodrada</font> (b.784), <font color="#0000ff">abbess</font> of <font color="#0000ff">Argenteuil</font> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Hiltrude (b.787) </span></li></ul></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His fourth wife was <font color="#0000ff">Luitgard</font>, married 794, died childless </span></li></ul><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Concubinages and illegitimate children</span></strong> <ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His first known concubine was <span style="color: #cc2200">Gersuinda</span>. By her he had: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Adaltrude (b.774) </span></li></ul></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His second known concubine was <span style="color: #cc2200">Madelgard</span>. By her he had: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span style="color: #cc2200">Ruodhaid</span> (775-810), <font color="#0000ff">abbess</font> of <font color="#0000ff">Faremoutiers</font> </span></li></ul></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His third known concubine was <span style="color: #cc2200">Amaltrud of Vienne</span>. By her he had: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Alpaida (b.794) </span></li></ul></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His fourth known concubine was <font color="#0000ff">Regina</font>. By her he had: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Drogo</font> (801-855), <font color="#0000ff">Bishop of Metz</font> from 823 and abbot of <font color="#0000ff">Luxeuil Abbey</font> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Hugh</font> (802-844), <font color="#0000ff">archchancellor</font> of the Empire </span></li></ul></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">His fifth known concubine was <span style="color: #cc2200">Ethelind</span>. By her he had: </span><ul><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span style="color: #cc2200">Richbod</span> (805-844), <span style="color: #cc2200">Abbott of Saint-Riquier</span> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list 1.0in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span style="color: #cc2200">Theodoric</span> (b. 807) </span></li></ul></li></ul><p><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">References</span></strong></p><p><strong></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Footnotes</span></strong> </p><ol><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Rich&eacute;, Preface xviii, Pierre Rich&eacute; reflects: &quot;[H]e enjoyed an exceptional destiny, and by the length of his reign, by his conquests, legislation and legendary stature, he also profoundly marked the history of western Europe.&quot; </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Oman, Charles. <em>The Dark Ages 476&ndash;919</em> Rivingtons: London, 1914. Regards Charlemagne&#39;s grandsons as the first kings of France and Germany, which at the time comprised the whole of the Carolingian Empire save Italy. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> &quot;The year is given as 747 in <em>Annales Petaviani</em> [&quot;<em>Et ipso anno fuit natus Karolus rex</em>.&quot; <em>Annales Petaviani</em>, </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">s.a.</font><font size="3"> 747, </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">MGH SS 1:11.</font><font size="3"> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Etymology of &quot;Charles/Karl/Karel&quot;</font><font size="3"><sup>[<em><font color="#0000ff">dead link</font></em>]</sup> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Original text of the Salic law.</font><font size="3"> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Einhard, <em>Life</em>, 25. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> <em>Charlemagne</em> By Alessandro Barbero, Allan Cameron <em>P. 116</em> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> <em>Charlemagne</em> By Alessandro Barbero, Allan Cameron <em>P. 118</em> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Gene W. Heck <em>When worlds collide: exploring the ideological and political foundations of the clash of civilizations</em> Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2007 </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN 0742558568</font><font size="3">, p. 172 </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Google Books Search</font><font size="3"> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Cf. <em><font color="#0000ff">Monumenta Germaniae Historica</font></em>, Diplomata Karolinorum I, 77ff. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> <em>eum imperatorem et basileum appellantes</em>, cf. <em><font color="#0000ff">Royal Frankish Annals</font></em>, a. 812. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> E. Eichmann, <em>Die Kaiserkr&ouml;nung im Abendland</em> I (W&uuml;rzburg: 1942), 33. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Einhard, <em>Life</em>, p. 59 </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Peter Godman (1985), <em>Latin Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press), 206&ndash;211. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Chamberlin, Russell, <em>The Emperor Charlemagne</em>, pp. 222&ndash;224 </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Dutton, PE, <em>Carolingian Civilization: A Reader</em> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">^ </font><strong><em><sup><font size="3" color="#0000ff">a</font></sup></em></strong><font size="3"> </font><strong><em><sup><font size="3" color="#0000ff">b</font></sup></em></strong><font size="3"> Hooper, Nicholas / Bennett, Matthew. </font><em><font size="3" color="#0000ff">The Cambridge illustrated atlas of warfare: the Middle Ages</font></em><font size="3"> Cambridge University Press, 1996, Pg. 12-13 </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN 0521440491</font><font size="3">, 9780521440493 </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Bowlus, Charles R. </font><em><font size="3" color="#0000ff">The battle of Lechfeld and its aftermath, August 955: the end of the age of migrations in the Latin West</font></em><font size="3"> Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006, Pg. 49 </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN 0754654702</font><font size="3">, 9780754654704 </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Dutton, Paul Edward, <em>Charlemagne&#39;s Mustache</em> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Collins, <em>Charlemagne</em>, p. 147. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Collins, <em>Charlemagne</em>, p. 149. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Riche, Pierre, <em>The Carolingians</em>, p.124 </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Chamberlin, Russell, <em>The Emperor Charlemagne</em>, p.&nbsp;??? </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Quid plura? | &quot;Flying birds, excellent birds...&quot;</font><font size="3"> </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Charlemagne&#39;s biographer </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Einhard</font><font size="3"> (Vita Karoli Magni, ch. 20) calls her a &quot;concubine&quot; and </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Paulus Diaconus</font><font size="3"> speaks of Pippin&#39;s birth &quot;before legal marriage&quot;, whereas a letter by </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Pope Stephen III</font><font size="3"> refers to Charlemagne and his brother Carloman as being already married (to Himiltrude and </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Gerberga</font><font size="3">), and advises them not to dismiss their wives. Historians have interpreted the information in different ways. Some, such as </font><span style="color: #cc2200"><font size="3">Pierre Rich&eacute;</font></span><font size="3"> (<em>The Carolingians</em>, p.86.), follow Einhard in describing Himiltrude as a concubine. Others, for example Dieter H&auml;gemann (<em>Karl der Gro&szlig;e. Herrscher des Abendlands</em>, p. 82f.), consider Himiltrude a wife in the full sense. Still others subscribe to the idea that the relationship between the two was &quot;something more than concubinage, less than marriage&quot; and describe it as a </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Friedelehe</font><font size="3">, a form of marriage unrecognized by the Church and easily dissolvable. Russell Chamberlin (<em>The Emperor Charlemagne</em>, p. 61.), for instance, compared it with the English system of common-law marriage. This form of relationship is often seen in a conflict between Christian marriage and more flexible Germanic concepts. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> Gerd Treffer, <em>Die franz&ouml;sischen K&ouml;niginnen. Von Bertrada bis Marie Antoinette (8.-18. Jahrhundert)</em> </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">p. 30</font><font size="3">. </font></span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">^</font></span></strong><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3"> &quot;By [Hildigard] Charlemagne had four sons and four daughters, according to Paul the Deacon: one son, the twin of Lewis, called Lothar, died as a baby and is not mentioned by Einhard; two daughters, Hildigard and Adelhaid, died as babies, so that Einhard appears to err in one of his names, unless there were really five daughters.&quot; Thorpe, Lewis, <em>Two Lives of Charlemagne</em>, p.185 </font></span></li></ol><p><strong><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Bibliography</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Barbero, Alessandro (2004). <em>Charlemagne: Father of a Continent</em>. trans. Allan Cameron. Berkeley: University of California Press. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-520-23943-1</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Becher, Matthias (2003). <em>Charlemagne</em>. trans. David S. Bachrach. New Haven: Yale University Press. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-300-09796-4</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Einhard</font><font size="3"> (1960) [1880]. </font><em><font size="3" color="#0000ff">The Life of Charlemagne</font></em><font size="3">. trans. Samuel Epes Turner. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-472-06035-X</font><font size="3">. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Ganshof, F. L.</font><font size="3"> (1971). <em>The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy: Studies in Carolingian History</em>. trans. Janet Sondheimer. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-8014-0635-8</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Langston, Aileen Lewers; and J. Orton Buck, Jr (eds.) (1974). <em>Pedigrees of Some of the Emperor Charlemagne&#39;s Descendants</em>. Baltimore: Genealogical Pub. Co..<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">McKitterick, R.</font><font size="3"> (2008). <em>Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity</em>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Rich&eacute;, Pierre (1993). <em>The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe</em>. University of Pennsylvania Press. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN 0-8122-1342-4</font><font size="3"> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Oman, Charles</font><font size="3"> (1914). <em>The Dark Ages, 476-918</em> (6th ed. ed.). London: Rivingtons.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Painter, Sidney</font><font size="3"> (1953). <em>A History of the Middle Ages, 284-1500</em>. New York: Knopf.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Pirenne, Henri</font><font size="3"> (1939). <em>Mohammed and Charlemagne</em>. trans. Bernard Miall. New York: Norton.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Santosuosso, Antonio</font><font size="3"> (2004). <em>Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare</em>. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-8133-9153-9</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Scholz, Bernhard Walter; with Barbara Rogers (1970). <em>Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard&#39;s Histories</em>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-472-08790-8</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> Comprises the <em>Annales regni Francorum</em> and <em>The History of the Sons of Louis the Pious</em> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3" color="#0000ff">Charlemagne: Biographies and general studies</font><font size="3">, from <em><font color="#0000ff">Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</font></em>, full-article, latest edition. </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Sypeck, Jeff (2006). <em>Becoming Charlemagne: Europe, Baghdad, and The Empires of A.D. 800</em>. New York: Ecco/HarperCollins. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-06-079706-1</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: symbol"><span>&middot;<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Wilson, Derek (2005). <em>Charlemagne: The Great Adventure</em>. London: Hutchinson. </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">ISBN</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">0-09-179461-7</font><font size="3">.<span style="display: none">&nbsp;</span> </font></span><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span></strong></p><p><strong><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">External links</span></strong></p><p><strong></strong><span style="color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font size="3">Find more about <strong>Carolus Magnus</strong> on Wikipedia&#39;s </font><font size="3" color="#0000ff">sister projects</font><font size="3">:</font></span> </p><ul style="margin-: 0in"><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Charlemagne&#39;s biography</font> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><em><font color="#0000ff">The Life of Charlemagne</font></em> by Einhard. At Medieval Sourcebook </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><em><font color="#0000ff">Vita Karoli Magni</font></em> by Einhard. <font color="#0000ff">Latin</font> text at <font color="#0000ff">The Latin Library</font> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">A reconstructed <font color="#0000ff">portrait of Charlemagne</font>, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style. </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">The Sword of Charlemagne</font> (myArmoury.com article) </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Charlemagne Picture Gallery</font> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Charter given by Charlemagne</font> for <font color="#0000ff">St. Emmeram&#39;s Abbey</font> showing the Emperor&#39;s seal, 22.2.794 . Taken from the collections of the <font color="#0000ff">Lichtbildarchiv &auml;lterer Originalurkunden</font> at <font color="#0000ff">Marburg University</font> </span></li><li style="background: #f8fcff; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal; tab-ss: list .5in"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Works by or about Charlemagne</font> in libraries (<font color="#0000ff">WorldCat</font> catalog) </span></li></ul><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Emperor Charles I the Great</span><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Carolingian dynasty</font></span></span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Died:</span></strong><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> 28 January 814</span><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Regnal titles</span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Preceded&nbsp;by<br><strong><font color="#0000ff">Pippin the Short</font></strong></span><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">King of the Franks</font></span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br>768 &ndash; 814<br><em>with <font color="#0000ff">Carloman I</font></em> </span><em><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(768 &ndash; 771)</span></em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br><em><font color="#0000ff">Charles the Younger</font></em> </span><em><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(800 &ndash; 811)</span></em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Succeeded&nbsp;by<br><strong><span><font color="#0000ff">Louis the Pious</font></span></strong></span><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Vacant</span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Title last held by</span><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Romulus Augustulus (as Western Roman Emperor)</font></span></span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Emperor of the Romans</font></span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br>800 &ndash; 814<br><em>with <span><font color="#0000ff">Louis the Pious</font></span></em> </span><em><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(813 &ndash; 814)</span></em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Preceded&nbsp;by<br><strong><span><font color="#0000ff">Desiderius</font></span></strong></span><strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">King of the Lombards</font></span></span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br>774 &ndash; 814<br><em>with <font color="#0000ff">Pippin of Italy</font><br>as <strong>King of Italy</strong></em> </span><em><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">(781 &ndash; 810)</span></em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Succeeded&nbsp;by<br><strong><span><font color="#0000ff">Bernard of Italy</font></span></strong><br></span><strong><em><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">as <span><font color="#0000ff">King of Italy</font></span></span></em></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <div align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">[<font color="#0000ff">show</font>]<strong> </strong></span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">v</font></span>&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 6pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&bull;</span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<span style="color: #cc2200">d</span>&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 6pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&bull;</span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<span><font color="#0000ff">e</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Carolingian Kings of the Franks</font></span></span></strong><strong></strong><strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Carolingians</font>:</span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">P&eacute;pin</font> <em>(751&ndash;768)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Carloman I</font> <em>(768&ndash;771)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <strong>Charles I</strong> <em>(768&ndash;814)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis I</font> <em>(814&ndash;840)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Interregnum</font> <em>(840&ndash;843)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles II</font> <em>(843&ndash;877)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis II</font> <em>(877&ndash;879)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis III</font> <em>(879&ndash;882)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Carloman II</font> <em>(879&ndash;884)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles the Fat</font> <em>(884&ndash;888)</em> <strong><font color="#0000ff">Robertian</font>:</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Eudes</font> <em>(887&ndash;898)</em> <strong>Carolingian:</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles III</font> <em>(898&ndash;922)</em> <strong>Robertian:</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Robert I</font> <em>(922&ndash;923)</em> <strong><font color="#0000ff">Bosonid</font></strong>: <font color="#0000ff">Raoul</font> <em>(923&ndash;936)</em> <strong>Carolingians:</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis IV</font> <em>(936&ndash;954)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Lothaire</font> <em>(954&ndash;986)</em>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis V</font> <em>(986&ndash;987)</em> <strong>Capetian (Robertian):</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Hughes</font> <em>(986&ndash;987)</em></span></div><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <div align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">[<font color="#0000ff">show</font>]<strong> </strong></span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">v</font></span>&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 6pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&bull;</span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<span><font color="#0000ff">d</font></span>&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 6pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&bull;</span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<span><font color="#0000ff">e</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Kings of Italy</font> between 476 and 963</span></strong><strong></strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Non-dynastic</span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Odoacer</font></span> <em>(476&ndash;493)</em></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Ostrogoths</font></span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Theodoric</font></span> <em>(493&ndash;526)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Athalaric</font></span> <em>(526&ndash;534)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Theodahad</font></span> <em>(534&ndash;536)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Witiges</font></span> <em>(536&ndash;540)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Ildibad</font></span> <em>(540&ndash;541)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Eraric</font></span> <em>(541)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Totila</font></span> <em>(541&ndash;552)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Teia</font></span> <em>(552&ndash;553)</em></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Byzantines</font></span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Justinian I</font></span> (as Emperor) <em>(553&ndash;565)</em></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Lombards</font></span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Alboin</font></span> <em>(565&ndash;572)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Cleph</font></span> <em>(572&ndash;574)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <em><span><font color="#0000ff">Interregnum</font></span></em> <em>(574&ndash;584)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Authari</font></span> <em>(584&ndash;590)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Agilulf</font></span> <em>(590&ndash;616)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Adaloald</font></span> <em>(616&ndash;626)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Arioald</font></span> <em>(626&ndash;636)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Rothari</font></span> <em>(636-652)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Rodoald</font></span> <em>(652&ndash;653)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Aripert I</font></span> <em>(653&ndash;661)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Godepert</font></span> <em>(661&ndash;662)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Perctarit</font></span> <em>(661&ndash;662)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Grimoald</font></span> <em>(662&ndash;671)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Garibald</font></span> <em>(671)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Perctarit</font></span> <em>(671&ndash;688)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Cunipert</font></span> <em>(688&ndash;689)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Alahis</font></span> <em>(689)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Cunipert</font></span> <em>(689&ndash;700)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Liutpert</font></span> <em>(700&ndash;702)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Raginpert</font></span> <em>(701)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Aripert II</font></span> <em>(702&ndash;712)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Ansprand</font></span> <em>(712)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Liutprand</font></span> <em>(712&ndash;744)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Hildeprand</font></span> <em>(744)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Ratchis</font></span> <em>(744&ndash;749)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Aistulf</font></span> <em>(749&ndash;756)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Desiderius</font></span> <em>(756&ndash;774)</em></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Carolingians</font></span></strong><strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charles I</span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <em>(774&ndash;814)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Pepin</font></span> <em>(781&ndash;810)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Bernard</font></span> <em>(810&ndash;818)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Lothair I</font></span> <em>(818&ndash;855)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Louis I</font></span> <em>(855&ndash;875)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles II</font> <em>(875&ndash;877)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Carloman</font></span> <em>(877&ndash;879)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Charles III</font></span> <em>(879&ndash;887)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Arnulf</font></span> <em>(896&ndash;899)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Ratold</font></span> <em>(896)</em></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Non-dynastic<br>(title disputed 887&ndash;933)</span></strong><strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Unruochings</font></span></span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">: <span><font color="#0000ff">Berengar I</font></span> <em>(887&ndash;924)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <strong><span><font color="#0000ff">Guideschi</font></span></strong>: <span><font color="#0000ff">Guy</font></span> <em>(889&ndash;894)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Lambert</font></span> <em>(891&ndash;897)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <strong><span><font color="#0000ff">Welfs</font></span></strong>: <span><font color="#0000ff">Rudolph</font></span> <em>(922&ndash;933)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <strong><font color="#0000ff">Bosonids</font></strong>: <span><font color="#0000ff">Louis II</font></span> <em>(900&ndash;905)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Hugh</font></span> <em>(926&ndash;947)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <span><font color="#0000ff">Lothair II</font></span> <em>(945&ndash;950)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <strong><span><font color="#0000ff">Anscarids</font></span></strong>: <span><font color="#0000ff">Berengar II</font></span> <em>(950&ndash;963)</em><strong>&nbsp;&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Adalbert</font> <em>(950&ndash;963)</em></span></div><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <div align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">[<font color="#0000ff">show</font>]<strong> </strong></span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">v</font></span>&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 6pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&bull;</span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<span><font color="#0000ff">d</font></span>&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 6pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&bull;</span><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<span><font color="#0000ff">e</font></span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span><font color="#0000ff">Holy Roman Emperors</font></span></span></strong><strong></strong><strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Carolingian Empire</font></span></strong><strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Charles I (Charlemagne)</span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Lothair I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles III</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Guy</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Lambert</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Arnulf</font></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis III</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Berengar</font></span><strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Holy Roman Empire</font></span></strong><span style="display: none; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">Otto I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Otto II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Otto III</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Henry II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Conrad II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Henry III</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Henry IV</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Henry V</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Lothair II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Frederick I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Henry VI</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Otto IV</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Frederick II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Henry VII</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Louis IV</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles IV</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Sigismund</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Frederick III</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Maximilian I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles V</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Ferdinand I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Maximilian II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Rudolph II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Matthias</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Ferdinand II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Ferdinand III</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Leopold I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Joseph I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles VI</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Charles VII</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Francis I</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Joseph II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Leopold II</font>&nbsp;<strong>&middot;</strong> <font color="#0000ff">Francis II</font></span></div><font face="Calibri" size="3">&nbsp;</font><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><font color="#0000ff">732 AD</font> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Oct 10, 732 AD - On <strong>October 10, 732 AD</strong>, a Muslim army tried to conquer France from Spain, but Charles Martel and the <font color="#0000ff">Franks</font> defeated them at the Battle of Tours. This ended the offensive operations of Muslims in western <font color="#0000ff">Europe</font>. Forty years later the grandson of Charles <strong>...</strong><span style="display: none">On <strong>October 10, 732 AD</strong>, a Muslim army tried to conquer France from Spain, but Charles Martel and the <font color="#0000ff">Franks</font> defeated them at the Battle of Tours. This ended the offensive operations of Muslims in western <font color="#0000ff">Europe</font>. Forty years later the grandson of Charles Martel, <strong>Charlemagne</strong> (&quot;<strong>Charles the Great</strong>&quot;), invaded Spain to push the Muslims out, but failed. The newly named emperor of Europe was surrounded by enemies, with pagan Saxons in the east, Danes in the north, and Spanish <strong>...</strong></span> </span>&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show more<span style="display: none"> </span></span>&nbsp;<span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show less</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">War Elephants</font> - <font color="#0000ff">Related web pages</font><br><em>books.google.com/books?id=Y0sqI1fxfnMC&amp;pg ...</em></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<font color="#0000ff">742 AD</font> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">742 AD - <strong>Charlemagne</strong>, <strong>Charles the Great</strong>, King of Franks, and Emperor of <font color="#0000ff">Western Europe</font>, was born in <strong>742 AD</strong>, and became a famous commander in one of the great centers of power in history: The Sacred <font color="#0000ff">Roman Empire</font>. Charlemagne&#39;s empire was based on the fighting strength <strong>...<span style="display: none">Charlemagne</span></strong><span style="display: none">, <strong>Charles the Great</strong>, King of Franks, and Emperor of <font color="#0000ff">Western Europe</font>, was born in <strong>742 AD</strong>, and became a famous commander in one of the great centers of power in history: The Sacred <font color="#0000ff">Roman Empire</font>. Charlemagne&#39;s empire was based on the fighting strength of the Franks, a confederation of barbarian tribes from the land of the Rhine in German. They fulfilled the emptiness of power after the fall of the Roman Empire. Their insatiable ambition, sometimes increased due to <strong>...</strong></span> </span>&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show more<span style="display: none"> </span></span>&nbsp;<span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show less</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">Toledo Swords Historical Replica Swords - Fine Quality Historical Replica &hellip;</font> <br><em>www.toledosword.com/historical_replica_sword.html</em></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<font color="#0000ff">751 AD</font> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">751 AD - The kingdom of the Franks was the greatest among the Teu- tonic nations. In <strong>AD 751</strong> the Merovingian Dynasty was over- thrown and the Carlovingian Dynasty established. The transfer of the Roman Empire of the West to the dominion of the Franks was the great <strong>...</strong><span style="display: none">CHAPTER I THE EMPIRE OF <strong>CHARLEMAGNE Charlemagne</strong>, <strong>Charles the Great</strong> (768-814), the first Carlo- vingian king of the Franks, was the son and successor of Pepin the Short. The kingdom of the Franks was the greatest among the Teu- tonic nations. In <strong>AD 751</strong> the Merovingian Dynasty was over- thrown and the Carlovingian Dynasty established. The transfer of the Roman Empire of the West to the dominion of the Franks was the great event of the eighth century.</span> </span>&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show more<span style="display: none"> </span></span>&nbsp;<span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show less</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">Full text of &quot;Historical fiction chronologically and historically related&quot;</font> - <font color="#0000ff">Related web pages</font><br><em>www.archive.org/stream ...</em></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>6.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>7.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<font color="#0000ff">768 AD</font> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">768 AD - The <font color="#0000ff">Rise of <strong>Charlemagne</strong></font>: The Rise of <strong>Charlemagne</strong> When <font color="#0000ff">Pepin the Short</font> dies in <strong>768 AD</strong> he leaves the Kingdom to his two sons</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: symbol"><span>&agrave;</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Carloman and Charles Carloman dies in 771, and <strong>Charlemagne</strong> (<strong>Charles the Great</strong>) seizes control of the Kingdom.<br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">Theearlyandcentralmi Ddleages Ppt Presentation</font> - <font color="#0000ff">Related web pages</font><br><em>www.authorstream.com/Presentation/Nastasia ...</em></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>8.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>9.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<font color="#0000ff">800 AD</font> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">800 AD - The most famous ruler in mediaeval Europe was <strong>Charlemagne</strong>, <strong>Charles the Great</strong>, who was anointed <font color="#0000ff">Emperor of the West</font> in <strong>800 AD</strong>. His achievements included reclaiming parts of Spain from the Moors, annexing Bavaria and Christianizing the Saxons but, for our <strong>...</strong><span style="display: none">The most famous ruler in mediaeval Europe was <strong>Charlemagne</strong>, <strong>Charles the Great</strong>, who was anointed <font color="#0000ff">Emperor of the West</font> in <strong>800 AD</strong>. His achievements included reclaiming parts of Spain from the Moors, annexing Bavaria and Christianizing the Saxons but, for our purposes, his importance lies in his commitment to education. I&#39;ll mention, by way of comic relief, that <strong>Charles the Great</strong> was the son of Pepin the Short and was succeeded by Charles the Bald, who was followed by Charles <strong>...</strong></span> </span>&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show more<span style="display: none"> </span></span>&nbsp;<span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show less</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">Evolution and the Struggle for Human Consciousness - IV</font> - <font color="#0000ff">Related web pages</font><br><em>southerncrossreview.org/65/francis-evolution4.htm</em></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>10.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>11.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp; </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">800 AD - And the use of the phrase <strong>Charles the Great</strong>,&quot; instead of the old established <strong>Charlemagne</strong>,&quot; must also be counted a gain. For when even usually learned and accurate writers could speak of Charlemagnebeing made Emperor of French&quot; <strong>AD 800</strong>, it was time to put away a <strong>...</strong><span style="display: none">And the use of the phrase <strong>Charles the Great</strong>,&quot; instead of the old established <strong>Charlemagne</strong>,&quot; must also be counted a gain. For when even usually learned and accurate writers could speak of Charlemagnebeing made Emperor of French&quot; <strong>AD 800</strong>, it was time to put away a mode of speech that gave rise to such curious distortions of history.</span> </span>&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show more<span style="display: none"> </span></span>&nbsp;<span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show less</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">The Gentleman&#39;s Magazine</font> - <font color="#0000ff">Related web pages</font><br><em>books.google.com/books?id=7fIIAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA1 ...</em></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>12.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>13.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp; </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">800 AD - During the rule of <strong>Charles the Great</strong> (742 &ndash; 814); many of the municipalities and monasteries possessed their own vineyards for greater production. [1] When <strong>Charlemagne</strong> ruled over the area around <strong>800 AD</strong>, the vineyards surrounding Gutenberg Castle yielded <strong>...</strong><span style="display: none">During the rule of <strong>Charles the Great</strong> (742 &ndash; 814); many of the municipalities and monasteries possessed their own vineyards for greater production. [1] When <strong>Charlemagne</strong> ruled over the area around <strong>800 AD</strong>, the vineyards surrounding Gutenberg Castle yielded some three thousand gallons of wine a year. <strong>Charlemagne</strong> did much to alter the method of production, strongly encouraging better hygiene and pressing of the grapes by making it practice for the wine pressers to wash their <strong>...</strong></span> </span>&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show more<span style="display: none"> </span></span>&nbsp;<span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show less</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">Liechtenstein wine - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</font> <br><em>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtenstein_wine</em></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>14.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><span>15.<span style="font: 7pt 'times new roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;</span> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">&nbsp;<font color="#0000ff">814 AD</font> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">814 AD - (Mark 8:35-36)I&#39;ve heard the story told that when <strong>Charlemagne</strong> (<strong>Charles the Great</strong>) died in <strong>814 AD</strong>, the world seemed to stand still. Europe as you see it today remains the scattered fragments of his once invincible empire. When this proud monarch died, they <strong>...</strong><span style="display: none">For whoever wants to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for me and for the gospel will save it. What good is it for a man to gain the whole world, yet forfeit his soul? (Mark 8:35-36)I&#39;ve heard the story told that when <strong>Charlemagne</strong> (<strong>Charles the Great</strong>) died in <strong>814 AD</strong>, the world seemed to stand still. Europe as you see it today remains the scattered fragments of his once invincible empire. When this proud monarch died, they carried him into his regal <strong>...</strong></span> </span>&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show more<span style="display: none"> </span></span>&nbsp;<span style="display: none; font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">Show less</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"><br></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #676767; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'">From</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'"> <font color="#0000ff">Keyword: devotion</font> <br><em>www.freerepublic.com/tag/devotion/index</em></span>

  • Story: Family Of Charlemagne

    <p><strong>Family of Charlemagne (Karolus Magnus, Charles the Great, Karl der Gro&szlig;e)<br></strong>By Stewart Baldwin<br>http://sbaldw.home.mindspring.com/hproject/prov/charl000.htm</p><p>King of the Franks, 768-814.<br>King of the Langobards, 774-814.<br>Emperor, 800-814.</p><p>Known as Charles (Latin Carolus, Karolus) during his own life, the form &quot;Charlemagne&quot; by which he is commonly known in English and French does not appear until the beginning of the twelfth century [See Settipani (1993), 191, n. 2]. On 9 October 768, shortly after the death of his father, king P&eacute;pin, he was named as joint king of the Franks along with his brother Carloman [&quot;..., et rex Pippinus defunctus est in 8. Cal. Octobr. et Karlus et Karlomannus ad reges uncti sunt 7 Id. Octobris&quot; Ann. S. Amandi, s.a. 768, MGH SS 1: 12; similarly in Annales Petaviani, s.a. 768, MGH SS 1: 13], and he reunited his father&#39;s possessions after Carloman&#39;s death on 4 December 771 [Annales Sancti Amandi, s.a. 771, MGH SS 1: 12]. In 774, he became king of the Langobards after the capture of king Desiderius and his wife and daughter [Annales Sancti Amandi, s.a. 774, MGH SS 1: 12; Annales Laubacensis, s.a. 774, MGH SS 1: 13], a kingdom which included northern Italy (but not southern Italy). On 25 December 800, Charles was crowned as Emperor by the Pope, becoming the first emperor in the west since the fifth century [&quot;Ipsa die sacratissima natalis Domini, cum rex ad missam ante confessionem beati Petri apostoli ab oratione surgeret, Leo papa coronam capiti eius imposuit, et a cuncto Romanorum populo adclamatum est: &#39;Carolo augusto, a Deo coronato magno et pacifico imperatori Romanorum, vita et victoria!&#39; Et post laudes ab apostolico more antiquorum principum adoratus est atque ablato patricii nomine imperator et augustus est appellatus.&quot; ARF, s.a. 801, 112; the year begins on Christmas in these annals, which is why the event appears under the year 801 in the reckoning of the annals]. With his two elder sons, Charles and P&eacute;pin, having predeceased him, he was succeeded by his third son Louis (&quot;the Pious&quot;), who succeeded to all but (northern) Italy, which had already been given given to P&eacute;pin&#39;s son Bernard.</p><p>Date of Birth: Probably 2 April 748. <br>The date of 2 April comes from a Lorsch calendar [&quot;IIII. Non. Apr. Nativitatis domni et gloriosissimi Karoli imperatoris et semper Augusti.&quot; Becher (1992), 37, n. 5, quoting Staatsbibliothek Berlin, Philipps 1869]. Based on the statement by the annalist Einhard that he was aged about 71 at his death, many have given the date of his birth as 2 April 742, but this would place the birth of Charles prior to the marriage of his parents in 744. The year is given as 747 in Annales Petaviani [&quot;Et ipso anno fuit natus Karolus rex.&quot; Annales Petaviani, s.a. 747, MGH SS 1: 11]. One reason which has been given for placing the birth later than 747 is the immediately preceding entry in Annales Petaviani, which records the pilgrimage of Charlemagne&#39;s uncle king Carloman to Rome [&quot;Karolomannus migravit Romam.&quot; ibid.]. Now, it is known that Carloman&#39;s departure for Rome could not have taken place before 15 August 747, because he appears in a document of that date for the monastery of Stavelot-Malm&eacute;dy [Becher (1992), 38]. Thus, if the annals describe the events in the correct order, then Charlemagne had to be born after 15 August 747. Since the annal for the birth of Charles is obviously not contemporary (it refers to him as rex), the order of the events cannot necessarily be assumed from the order that they appear in the annals. However, there is a very good reason for concluding that Charlemagne was not born on 2 April 747: As pointed out by Becher, that date was as Easter Sunday, and it is virtually unthinkable that Charlemagne could have been born on an Easter Sunday without that fact being widely noted in contemporary sources [Becher (1992), 41]. Becher also noted that if Easter were being used as the beginning of the year, then 2 April 748 would fall under the year 747 (because Easter 748 was on 21 April). [See Becher (1992) for further detailed discussion]<br>Place of Birth: Unknown.</p><p>Date of Death: 28 January 814<br>Place of Death: Aachen.<br>[&quot;Domnus Karolus imperator, dum Aquisgrani hiemaret, anno aetatis circiter septuagesimo primo, regni autem quadragesimo septimo subactaeque Italiae quadragesimo tertio, ex quo vero imperator et augustus appellatus est, anno XIIII., V. Kal. Febr. rebus humanis excessit.&quot; ARF, s.a. 814, 140]</p><p>Father: P&eacute;pin &quot;le Bref&quot;, d. 24 September 768, king of the Franks.<br>[&quot;..., et rex Pippinus defunctus est in 8. Cal. Octobr. et Karlus et Karlomannus ad reges uncti sunt 7 Id. Octobris&quot; Ann. S. Amandi, s.a. 768, MGH SS 1: 12; similarly in Annales Petaviani, s.a. 768, MGH SS 1: 13]</p><p>Mother: Berthe, d. 8 June or 12&times;13 July 783<br>[&quot;Bertha obiit [6 Id Iun.]&quot; Annales Laureshamenses, MGH SS 1: 32; &quot;Berta obiit 6. Idus Iunii.&quot; Chronicon Moissiacense, s.a. 783, MGH SS 1: 297; &quot;... et Bertrada regina 3. Idus Iulii in Cauciaco defuncts est, mater Karoli.&quot; Annales Sancti Amandi, MGH SS 1: 12; &quot;Eodem anno defuncta est bonae memoriae mater regis Berhtrada IIII. Id. Iul.&quot; ARF, s.a. 783, 67]</p><p>Spouses:</p><p>(1) m. ca. 769, NN, daughter of Desiderius, king of the Lombards.<br>The name Desiderata taken from one author [Vita Adalhardi, c. 7, MGH SS 2: 525] is very unlikely [see, e.g., Werner (1967), 443, Settipani (1993), 198, n. 44].</p><p>(2) m. 771 before 30 April, Hildegarde, d. in Saxony, 30 April 783 [&quot;Tunc obiit domna ac bene merita Hildegardis regina pridie Kal. Mai., quod evenit in die tunc in tempore vigilia ascensionis Domini&quot; ARF, s.a. 783, 64; buried at Metz: MGH SS 1: 70, 164], sister of count Gerold [De Geroldo comite (Ex visione Wetini monachi Augiensis), RHF 5: 399; &quot;... Hildigardae reginae, ... Geroldo comite, germano praedictae reginae&quot;, Ratperti Casus S. Galli, MGH SS 2: 64], and a descendant of the Alamannian duke Gottfried [&quot;Quicum in iuventute erat, supradictus imperator desponsavit sibi nobilissimi generis Suavorum puellam, nomine Hildigardam, quae erat de cognatione Gotefridi ducis Alamannorum. Gotefridus dux genuit Huochingum, Huochingus genuit Nebi; Nebe genuit Immam, Imma vero genuit Hiltigardam beatissimum reginam.&quot; Thegan, Vita Hludowici, c. 2, MGH SS 2: 591].</p><p>(3) m. 783, Fastrada, d. 10 August 794 [Annales Guelferrytani, MGH SS 1: 45], daughter of count Radulf [&quot;Inde reversus in Franciam duxit uxorem filiam Radolfi comitis natione Francam, nomine Fastradam, ex qua duas filias procreavit.&quot; ARF (Annales Einhardi), s.a. 783, 67; note that this entry must have been written some years later, since it mentions children of the marriage]</p><p>(4) m. Spring 794/796, Liutgard, d. 4 June 800 [&quot;..., moratus ibi dies aliquot propter adversam domnae Liutgardae coniugis valitudinem, quae ibidem et defuncta et humata est; obiit autem die II. Non. Iunii.&quot; ARF, s.a. 800, 110], an Alamannian [Einhard, Vita Caroli, c. 18, MGH SS 2: 453 (see below)]. </p><p>Known mothers of his illegitimate children:<br>(See also below under children)</p><p>(a) ca. 768, Himitrud.<br>[Annales Laurissensis Minores, MGH SS 1: 119; Annales Laureshamenses, s.a. 792, MGH SS 1: 35]</p><p>(b) Madelgard.</p><p>(c) Gersvind.</p><p>(d) Regina.</p><p>(e) Adallind.</p><p>Children of Charlemagne:<br>In addition to numerous sources which give additional details, there are two contemporary sources which provide detailed outlines of Charlemgane&#39;s family. The earlier one, a history of the bishops of Metz by Paul Warnefrid (better known as Paul the Deacon), was written ca. 784, not long after the death of Charlemagne&#39;s wife Hildegard and his marriage to Fastrada. Charlemage&#39;s biographer Einhard, writing shortly after the emperor&#39;s death, provides later details for the family (but omits the three children of Charles and Hildegarde who died as infants).</p><p>&quot;Hic ex Hildegard coniuge quattuor filios et quinque filias procreavit. Habuit tamen, ante legale connuium ex Himiltrude nobili puella filium nomine Pippinum. Natorum sane eius quos ei Hildegard peprit, ista sunt nomina: primus dictus est Karolus, scilicet patris ac proavi vocabulo nuncupatus; secundus item Pippinus, fratri atque avo aequivocus; tertius Lodobich qui cum Hlothario, qui biennis occubuit, uno partu est genitus; ex quibus iam Deo favente minor Pippinus regnum Italiae, Lodobich Aquitaniae tenent.&quot;<br>&quot;Mortua autem Hildegard, rex excellentissimus Karolus Fastradam duxit uxorem. Quae Hildegard apud urbem Mettensium in beati Arnulfi oratiori requiescit. Pro eo denique, quod a beato Arnulfo iam fati reges originem ducerent, suorum ibi carorum defuncta corpora posuere. Nam ibi humatae sunt duae regis Pippini filiae, quarum una Rodthaid, altera Adelaid appellata est; ibi quoque et iunioris regis Karoli duae nihilominus tumulatae sunt natae, scilicet Adelaid det Hildegard; quae Hildegard materno nuncupata nomine, matrem morientum citius subsecuta est. Quarum omnium epitapha a nobis iussu gloriosi Caroli composita, ut de eis liquido lectori satisferet, subter annotare curavi.&quot;<br>[Paul the Deacon, Gesta Episcopum Mettensium, MGH SS 2: 265]</p><p>&quot;... Deinde cum matris hortatu filiam Desiderii, regis Langobardorum, duxisset uxorem, incertumqua de causa, post annum eam repudavit, et Hildegardem de gente Suavorum, praecipuae nobilitatis feminam, in matrimonium accepit, de qua tres filios, Karolum videlicet et Pippinum et Ludowicum, totidemque filias, Hruodrudem et Bertham et Gislam, genuit. Habuit et alias tres filias, Theoderadam et Hiltrudem et Ruodhaidem, duas de Fastrada uxore, quae de orientalium Francorum, Germanorum videlicet, gente erat, tertiam de concubina quadam, cuius nomen modo memoriae non occurrit. Defuncta Fastrada, Liudgardam Alamannam duxit, de qua nihil liberorum tulit. Post cuius cuius mortem tres habuit concubinas, Gersuindam Saxonici generis, de qua ei filia nomen Adaltrud nata est, et Reginam, quae ei Drogonem et Hugum genuit, et Adallindem, ex qua Theodricum procreavit. Mater eius quoque Berthrada in magno apud eum honore consenuit. Colebat enim eam cum summa reverentia, ita ut nulla umquam invicem sit exorta discordia, praeter in divortio filiae Desiderii regis, quam illa suadente acceperat. Decessit tandem post mortem Hildegardae, cum iam tres nepotes suos totidemque neptes in filii domo vidisset; quam ille in, eadem basilica qua pater situe est, apud sanctum Dionisium, magno cum honore fecit humari. ...&quot; [Einhard, Vita Caroli, c. 18, MGH SS 2: 453]</p><p>Legitimate children:<br>[For the dates of birth, see Werner (1967), 443-5.]</p><p>(by Hildegard)</p><p>&nbsp;Charles/Karl &quot;the younger&quot;, b. 772&times;3, d. 4 Dec. 811 [&quot;Interea Carlus filius domni imperatoris, qui maior natu erat, II. Non. Decembr. diem obiit; ...&quot; ARF, s.a. 811, 135], king of Neustria 788-811.</p><p>&nbsp;Ad&eacute;la&iuml;de/Adelheid, b. Sep. 773&times;June 774, d. July or August 774.<br>[For her epitaph, see Paul the Deacon, Gesta Episcopum Mettensium, MGH SS 2: 267]</p><p>&nbsp;Rotrude, b. ca. 775, d. 6 June 810 [&quot;Hruodtrud, filia imperatoris, quae natu maior erat, VII. (sic) Idus Iun. diem obiit.&quot;, ARF, s.a. 810, 131 (with marginal note &quot;Iun. 6&quot;); the earlier MGH edition of these annals, in MGH SS 1: 197 has &quot;8. Idus Iun.&quot;], mistress of Rorico, d. ca. 840, count of Maine.<br>In 781, she was betrothed to the Byzantine emperor Constantine, but the marriage never took place [Annales Laureshamensis, s.a. 781, MGH SS 1: 32; Einhard, Vita Caroli, c. 19, MGH SS 2: 453-4].</p><p>&nbsp;P&eacute;pin (originally Carloman), b. 777, d. 8 July 810, king of Italy, 781-810.</p><p>&nbsp;Louis I (Ludwig I &quot;der Fromme&quot;), b. 778 (twin), d. 20 June 840, king of Aquitaine, 781-814, emperor 813-840 (jointly 813-4); m (1) 794, Ermengarde, daughter of count Ingram, (2) 819, Judith, daughter of count Welf.</p><p>&nbsp;Lothair, b. 778 (twin), d. 779&times;780.</p><p>&nbsp;Berthe, b. 779&times;780, d. after 14 Jan. 823, mistress of Angilbert, d. 18 Feb. 814, abbot of Saint-Riquier.<br>She was mother of the historian Nithard: &quot;... Qui [i.e., Angilbert] ex eiusdem magni regis filia nomine Berchta, Harnidum, fratrem meum, et me Nithardum genuit.&quot; [Nithard iv, 5, MGH SS 2: 671] The title of &quot;count of Ponthieu&quot; given to Angilbert by some secondary sources is anachronistic, and there is no justification for the later genealogies which would make Angilbert and Berthe the ancestors of the later counts of Ponthieu.</p><p>&nbsp;Gis&egrave;le, baptized 781, living 800.<br>[&quot;Et inde revertente domno Carolo rege, Mediolanis civi-tate pervenit, et ibi baptizata est filia eius domna Gisola ab archiepiscopo nomine Thoma, qui et ipse eam a sacro baptismo manibus suscepit.&quot; ARF, s.a. 781, 56]</p><p>&nbsp;Hildegarde, b. 782 (after 8 June), d. (bef. 8) June 783.<br>[For her epitaph, see Paul Warnefrid, Gesta Episcopum Mettensium, MGH SS 2: 267]</p><p>(by Fastrada)</p><p>&nbsp;Th&eacute;odrade, b. ca. 785, d. 844&times;853, abbess of Argenteuil, bef. 814.</p><p>&nbsp;Hiltrude, b. ca. 787, d. after 800, prob. after 814.</p><p>Illegitimate children:</p><p>(by Himiltrud)</p><p>&nbsp;P&eacute;pin/Pippin &quot;the hunchback&quot;, b. bef. 770, d. 811 [Annales Laurissenses Minores, s.a. 811, MGH SS 1: 121], monk at Pr&uuml;m.<br>[&quot;Erat ei filius nomine Pippinus, ex concubina editus, cuius inter caeteros facere mentionem distuli; facie quidem pulcher, sed gibbo deformis. ...&quot; Einhard, Vita Caroli, c. 20, MGH SS 2: 504] He plotted against his father in 792 and was put into a monastery [Annales Laureshamenses, s.a. 792, MGH SS 1: 35].</p><p>(by unknown woman)</p><p>&nbsp;Rota&iuml;d (Hruodhaid), b. ca. 784, d. after 800, prob. after 814.</p><p>(by Madelgard)</p><p>&nbsp;Rothilde, d. 22 or 24 March 852, abbess of Faremoutiers.<br>The date is given as 22 March in the necrologies of Saint-Germain-des-Pr&egrave;s [&quot;XI kal. Dep. Rothildis, abbatiss&aelig; et monach&aelig;, fili&aelig; regis magni Karoli&quot; Obit. Sens, 1 (pt. 1): 254], Saint-Denis [&quot;Rotildis abbatissa&quot; ibid, 312], and Argenteuil [&quot;XI kal. Ob. Rotildis abbatissa.&quot; ibid, 345]. The necrology of Faremoutiers gives 24 March [&quot;Commemoratio domn&aelig; Rotildis, abbatiss&aelig; hujus ecclesi&aelig;.&quot; ibid., xx, n. 3, citing Du Plessis, Histoire de l&#39;&eacute;glise de Meaux, 2: 465 (which I have not seen)]. These obituaries have been sometimes incorrectly assigned to Rothilde, daughter of Charles the Bald [e.g., by Auguste Longnon, in the preface to Obit. Sens, 1 (pt. 1): xx-xxi; Werner (1967), 428; thanks to Peter Stewart for pointing out this error]. [For the year of death, see Werner (1967), 445, n. 14, who cites Wilmart, Codices Reginenses lat., 1 (1934): 344 (not seen by me)]</p><p>(by Gersvind)</p><p>&nbsp;Adaltrude.</p><p>(by Regina)</p><p>&nbsp;Drogo, b. 17 June 801, d. 8 December 855 [Catalogi Episcoporum Mettensium, MGH SS 13: 305 (date); Ann. Nec. Fuldenses, MGH SS 13: 177 (year)]; abbot of Luxeuil, 820; bishop of Metz, 28 June 823; archbishop and archchaplain, 834.</p><p>&nbsp;Hugues &quot;the Abbot&quot;, b. 802&times;6, d. 14 June 844 [Annales Fuldenses, s.a. 844, MGH SS 1: 364], monk in Charroux; abbot of Saint-Quentin, 836; abbot of Saint-Bertin, 834-40; archchancellor of Louis I.<br>[&quot;... Hugo, presbyter et abbas, filius Caroli magni quondam imperatoris ...&quot;, Annales Bertiniani, s.a. 844, MGH SS 1: 440]</p><p>(by Adallind)</p><p>&nbsp;Theoderich, b. 807, d. after 818, cleric in 818.</p><p>Daughter(s), who may or may not be the same as one of the above (or each other):</p><p>&nbsp;NN, mother of Ricbodo, d. 14 June 844 [Annales Fuldenses, s.a. 844, MGH SS 1: 364], abbot of Saint-Riquier.<br>[&quot;... Richboto abbas, et ipse consobrinus regum, nepos videlicet Caroli imperatoris ex filia, ...&quot;, , s.a. 844, MGH SS 1: 440]</p><p>&nbsp;NN, mother of Bernard, abbot of Moutier-Saint-Jean.<br>[&quot;... Unde pius Augustus avus vester Carolus paterque totius orbis.&quot; Werner (1967), 448]</p><p>Daughter or granddaughter:<br>&nbsp;Alpais, filia imperatoris, d. after 29 May 852, on a 23 September, m. Bego (Picco, Bicgo), d. 816, count of Paris.<br>[&quot;Picco, primus de amicis regis, qui et filiam imperatoris [nomine Elpheid] duxit uxorem, defunctus est.&quot; Annales Laurissenses Minores, s.a. 816, MGH SS 1: 122; &quot;Bicgo de amicis regis, qui et filiam imperatoris nomine Elpheid duxit uxorem, eo tempore defunctus est.&quot; Annales Hildesheimenses, s.a. 815, MGH SS 3: 42; &quot;... Quod monasterium Ludowicus imperator Alpheidi, filiae suae, uxori Begonis comitis, dono dedit, ...&quot; Flodoard, Historia Remensis Ecclesiae, iv, 46, MGH SS 13: 595] Although it is clear that the imperator who was the father of Alpais was either Charlemagne or Louis the Pious, there is no general agreement as to which man was her father. While the testimony of Flodoard would make Louis the father, Flodoard was writing a century later, and the chronology is a factor for making her a daughter of Charlemagne instead. [See also Werner (1967), 429-441; Settipani (1993), 200-3]</p><p><br>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------</p><p>Commentary</p><p>Supposed daughter (doubtful):<br>&nbsp;NN, m. Eardwulf, king of Northumbria, 796-806, 808-10.<br>This supposed marriage is given by the Annals of Lindisfarne [&quot;797. Eardulf regnavit 10. Iste duxit uxorem filiam regis Karoli.&quot; Ann. Lindisfarnenses, MGH SS 19: 506]. No other early source for the statement is known. [For Eardwulf, see Searle (1899), 311]</p><p>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------</p><p>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------</p><p>Bibliography<br>ARF = Georg Pertz &amp; Friedrich Kurze, Annales Regni Francorum (Annals of the kingdom of the Franks), MGH SRG 6 (Hannover, 1895), a collective name commonly given to two closely related sets of annals, Annales Laurissenses Maiores and the so-called Einhardi Annales (Annals of Einhard), in parallel on alternate pages until the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 (s.a. 801).</p><p>Becher (1992) = Matthias Becher, &quot;Neue &uuml;berlegungen zum geburtsdatum Karls des Grossen&quot;, Francia 19/1 (1992), 37-60.</p><p>Brandenburg (1964) = Erich Brandenburg, Die Nachkommen Karls des Gro&szlig;en (Frankfurt, 1964).</p><p>MGH SRG = Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptore rerum Germanicarum series.</p><p>MGH SS= Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores series.</p><p>Obit. Sens = Obituaires de la Province de Sens (2 vols. in 3, Paris, 1902-6).</p><p>PL = Migne&#39;s Patrologi&aelig; (Latin)</p><p>RHF = Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France.</p><p>Searle (1899) = Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings and Nobles (Cambridge, 1899).</p><p>Settipani (1993) = Christian Settipani, La pr&eacute;histoire des Cap&eacute;tiens 481-987 (Premi&egrave;re partie - M&eacute;rovingiens, Carolingiens et Robertiens) (Villeneuve d&#39;Ascq, 1993).</p><p>Werner (1967) = Karl Ferdinand Werner, &quot;Die Nachkommen Karls des Gro&szlig;en bis um das Jahr 1000 (1.-8. Generation)&quot;, Karl der Gro&szlig;e 4 (1967): 403-483.</p><p>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------</p><p>Compiled by Stewart Baldwin</p><p>First uploaded 23 May 2007.</p><p>Minor revision uploaded 12 January 2008: Corrected typo in death date of Rothilde, and added sources for her death date.</p><p>Revision uploaded 28 July 2008: Rewrote the section on the birthdate of Charlemagne, based on Becher (1992) [with &quot;2 April 748&quot; replacing the previous &quot;2 April 747 (or perhaps 748)&quot;].</p><p>Minor revision uploaded 17 October 2009: Added supposed wife of Eardwulf.</p><p>&nbsp;</p>

  • Story: CHARLEMAGNE From Wikipedia

    <p><strong>Charlemagne</strong> (pronounced <span><font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">/ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn/</font></span>; Latin: <span><em>Carolus Magnus</em> or <em>Karolus Magnus</em></span>, meaning <strong>Charles the Great</strong>) (2 April 742 &ndash; 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768 to his death. He expanded the Frankish kingdoms into a Frankish Empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned <span><em>Imperator Augustus</em></span> by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800 which temporarily made him a rival of the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople. His rule is also associated with the Carolingian Renaissance, a revival of art, religion, and culture through the medium of the Catholic Church. Through his foreign conquests and internal reforms, Charlemagne helped define both Western Europe and the Middle Ages. He is numbered as <strong>Charles I</strong> in the regnal lists of France, Germany (where he is known as <em>Karl der Gro&szlig;e</em>), and the Holy Roman Empire.</p><p>The son of King Pippin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, he succeeded his father and co-ruled with his brother Carloman I. The latter got on badly with Charlemagne, but war was prevented by the sudden death of Carloman in 771. Charlemagne continued the policy of his father towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in Italy, and waging war on the Saracens, who menaced his realm from Spain. It was during one of these campaigns that Charlemagne experienced the worst defeat of his life, at the Battle of Roncesvalles (778) memorialised in the <em>Song of Roland</em>. He also campaigned against the peoples to his east, especially the Saxons, and after a protracted war subjected them to his rule. By forcibly converting them to Christianity, he integrated them into his realm and thus paved the way for the later Ottonian dynasty.</p><p>Today he is regarded not only as the founding father of both French and German monarchies, but also as <em>the father of Europe</em>: his empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, and the Carolingian renaissance encouraged the formation of a common European identity.<sup><font size="3"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></font></sup></p><p>By the 6th century, the Franks were Christianised, and Francia ruled by the Merovingians had become the most powerful of the kingdoms which succeeded the Western Roman Empire. But following the Battle of Tertry, the Merovingians declined into a state of powerlessness, for which they have been dubbed do-nothing kings (<em>rois fain&eacute;ants</em>). Almost all government powers of any consequence were exercised by their chief officer, the mayor of the palace or <em>major domus</em>.</p><p>In 687, Pippin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his victory at Tertry and became the sole governor of the entire Frankish kingdom. Pippin himself was the grandson of two most important figures of the Austrasian Kingdom, Saint Arnulf of Metz and Pippin of Landen. Pippin the Middle was eventually succeeded by his illegitimate son Charles, later known as Charles Martel (the Hammer). After 737, Charles governed the Franks without a king on the throne but desisted from calling himself &quot;king.&quot; Charles was succeeded by his sons Carloman and Pippin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. To curb separatism in the periphery of the realm, the brothers placed on the throne Childeric III, who was to be the last Merovingian king.</p><p>After Carloman resigned his office, Pippin had Childeric III deposed with Pope Zachary&#39;s approval. In 751, Pippin was elected and anointed King of the Franks and in 754, Pope Stephen II again anointed him and his young sons, now heirs to the great realm which already covered most of western and central Europe. Thus was the Merovingian dynasty replaced by the Carolingian dynasty, named after Pippin&#39;s father Charles Martel.</p><p>Under the new dynasty, the Frankish kingdom spread to encompass an area including most of Western Europe. The division of that kingdom formed France and Germany;<sup><font size="3"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></font></sup> and the religious, political, and artistic evolutions originating from a centrally-positioned Francia made a defining imprint on the whole of Western Europe.</p><p>&nbsp;His story is very long...</p><p>You can read the rest here http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne</p>

  • Story: Charlemagne

    <p><em><strong>Charlemagne<br>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia </strong></em><br><br>Reign 768 &ndash; 814<br>Coronation 25 December 800<br>Predecessor Pippin the Short<br>Successor Louis the Pious<br>Father Pippin the Short<br>Mother Bertrada of Laon<br>Born 2 April 742<br>Li&egrave;ge<br>Died 28 January 814 (aged 71)<br>Aachen<br>Burial Aachen Cathedral<br>Carolingian dynasty<br>Pippinids <br>Pippin the Elder (c. 580&ndash;640)<br>Grimoald (616&ndash;656)<br>Childebert the Adopted (d. 662)<br>Arnulfings <br>Arnulf of Metz (582&ndash;640)<br>Chlodulf of Metz (d. 696 or 697)<br>Ansegisel (c.602&ndash;before 679)<br>Pippin the Middle (c.635&ndash;714)<br>Grimoald II (d. 714)<br>Drogo of Champagne (670&ndash;708)<br>Theudoald (d. 714)<br>Carolingians <br>Charles Martel (686&ndash;741)<br>Carloman (d. 754)<br>Pepin the Short (714&ndash;768)<br>Carloman I (751&ndash;771)<br>Charlemagne (d. 814)<br>Louis the Pious (778&ndash;840)<br>After the Treaty of Verdun (843) <br>Lothair I, Holy Roman Emperor (795&ndash;855)<br>(Middle Francia)<br>Charles the Bald (823&ndash;877)<br>(Western Francia)<br>Louis the German (804&ndash;876)<br>(Eastern Francia)<br><br><br>Charlemagne (pronounced /ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn/; Latin: Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus, German: Karl der Gro&szlig;e, meaning Charles the Great) (2 April 742 &ndash; 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768 to his death. He expanded the Frankish kingdoms into a Frankish Empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800 which temporarily made him a rival of the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople. His rule is also associated with the Carolingian Renaissance, a revival of art, religion, and culture through the medium of the Catholic Church. Through his foreign conquests and internal reforms, Charlemagne helped define both Western Europe and the Middle Ages. He is numbered as Charles I in the regnal lists of France, Germany, and the Holy Roman Empire.<br><br>The son of King Pippin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, he succeeded his father and co-ruled with his brother Carloman I. The latter got on badly with Charlemagne, but war was prevented by the sudden death of Carloman in 771. Charlemagne continued the policy of his father towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in Italy, and waging war on the Saracens, who menaced his realm from Spain. It was during one of these campaigns that Charlemagne experienced the worst defeat of his life, at the Battle of Roncesvalles (778) memorialised in the Song of Roland. He also campaigned against the peoples to his east, especially the Saxons, and after a protracted war subjected them to his rule. By forcibly converting them to Christianity, he integrated them into his realm and thus paved the way for the later Ottonian dynasty.<br><br>Today he is regarded not only as the founding father of both French and German monarchies, but also as the father of Europe: his empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, and the Carolingian renaissance encouraged the formation of a common European identity.<br><br><br><br><strong>Background</strong><br><br>By the 6th century, the Franks were Christianised, and Francia ruled by the Merovingians had become the most powerful of the kingdoms which succeeded the Western Roman Empire. But following the Battle of Tertry, the Merovingians declined into a state of powerlessness, for which they have been dubbed do-nothing kings (rois fain&eacute;ants). Almost all government powers of any consequence were exercised by their chief officer, the mayor of the palace or major domus.<br><br>In 687, Pippin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his victory at Tertry and became the sole governor of the entire Frankish kingdom. Pippin himself was the grandson of two most important figures of the Austrasian Kingdom, Saint Arnulf of Metz and Pippin of Landen. Pippin the Middle was eventually succeeded by his illegitimate son Charles, later known as Charles Martel (the Hammer). After 737, Charles governed the Franks without a king on the throne but desisted from calling himself &quot;king.&quot; Charles was succeeded by his sons Carloman and Pippin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. To curb separatism in the periphery of the realm, the brothers placed on the throne Childeric III, who was to be the last Merovingian king.<br><br>After Carloman resigned his office, Pippin had Childeric III deposed with Pope Zachary&#39;s approval. In 751, Pippin was elected and anointed King of the Franks and in 754, Pope Stephen II again anointed him and his young sons, now heirs to the great realm which already covered most of western and central Europe. Thus was the Merovingian dynasty replaced by the Carolingian dynasty, named after Pippin&#39;s father Charles Martel.<br><br>Under the new dynasty, the Frankish kingdom spread to encompass an area including most of Western Europe. The division of that kingdom formed France and Germany;[2] and the religious, political, and artistic evolutions originating from a centrally-positioned Francia made a defining imprint on the whole of Western Europe.<br><br><br><strong>Personal traits</strong><br><br><strong>Date and place of birth</strong><br><br>Charlemagne is believed to have been born in 742; however, several factors have led to a reconsideration of this date. First, the year 742 was calculated from his age given at death, rather than from attestation in primary sources. Another date is given in the Annales Petaviani, that of 2 April 747.[3]. In that year, 2 April was at Easter. The birth of an emperor at eastertime is a coincidence likely to provoke comment, but there was no such comment documented in 747, leading some to suspect that the Easter birthday was a pious fiction concocted as a way of honoring the Emperor. Other commentators weighing the primary records have suggested that his birth was one year later, in 748. At present, it is impossible to be certain of the date of the birth of Charlemagne. The best guesses include 1 April 747, after 15 April 747, or 1 April 748, in Herstal (where his father was born, a town close to Li&egrave;ge in modern day Belgium), the region from where both the Merovingian and Carolingian families originate. He went to live in his father&#39;s villa in Jupille when he was around seven, which caused Jupille to be listed as a possible place of birth in almost every history book. Other cities have been suggested, including, Pr&uuml;m, D&uuml;ren, Gauting and Aachen.<br> <br>Charlemagne (left) and Pippin the Hunchback. Tenth-century copy of a lost original from about 830.<br><br>Dubbed Charles le Magne &quot;Charles the Great&quot;, he was named after his grandfather, Charles Martel. The name derives from Germanic *karlaz &quot;free man, commoner&quot;,[4] which gave German Kerl &quot;man, guy&quot; and English churl. His name, however, is first attested in its Latin form, &quot;Carolus&quot; or &quot;Karolus.&quot;<br><br>In many eastern European languages, the very word for &quot;king&quot; derives from Charles&#39; name. (e.g., Polish: kr&oacute;l, Lithuanian: karalius, Hungarian: kir&aacute;ly, Serbian: kralj, Russian: король, Turkish: kral)<br><br><br><strong>Language</strong><br><br>Charlemagne&#39;s native language is a matter of controversy. It was probably a Germanic dialect of the Ripuarian Franks, but linguists differ on its identity and chronology. Some linguists go so far as to say that he did not speak Old Frankish as he was born in 742 or 747, by which time Old Frankish had become extinct. Old Frankish is reconstructed from its descendant, Old Low Franconian, which would give rise to the Dutch language and to the modern dialects in the German North Rhineland, which were dubbed Ripuarian in modern times. Another important source are loanwords in Old French. Linguists know very little about Old Frankish, as it is attested mainly as phrases and words in the law codes of the main Frankish tribes (especially those of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks), which are written in Latin interspersed with Germanic elements.[5] The Franconian language, which was a form of Lower German, had been replaced with an Old High German form in the area comprising the contemporary Southern Rhineland, The Palatinate South Hessen and Northern parts of Baden-W&uuml;rttemberg and Bavaria. The present Dutch language area along with the modern Ripuarian areas in the North Rhine region preserved a Lower German form of Franconian dubbed Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch.<br><br>The area of Charlemagne&#39;s birth does not make determination of his native language easier. Most historians agree he was born around Li&egrave;ge, like his father, but some say he was born in or around Aachen, some 50 km away. At that time, this was an area of great linguistic diversity. If we take Li&egrave;ge (around 750) as the centre, we find:<br>Old East Low Franconian (the forerunner of Limburgish) in the city, north and northwest;<br>the closely related Old Ripuarian Franconian (a central Old High German dialect) to the east and in Aachen; and<br>Gallo-Romance (the ancestor of the Walloon dialect of Old French) in the south and southwest.<br><br>The names he gave his children are also good indicators of the language he spoke, as all of his daughters received Old High German names.<br><br>Apart from his native language he also spoke Latin &quot;as fluently as his own tongue&quot; and understood a bit of Greek: Grecam vero melius intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat, &quot;He understood Greek better than he could pronounce it.&quot;[6]<br></p><p><strong>Personal appearance</strong></p><p><strong><br></strong>Though no description from Charlemagne&#39;s lifetime exists, his personal appearance is known from a good description by Einhard, author of the biographical Vita Karoli Magni. Einhard tells in his twenty-second chapter:[7]<br><br>He was heavily built, sturdy, and of considerable stature, although not exceptionally so, given that he stood seven feet tall. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly larger nose than usual, white but still attractive hair, a bright and cheerful expression, a short and fat neck, and a slightly protruding stomach. His voice was clear, but a little higher than one would have expected for a man of his build. He enjoyed good health, except for the fevers that affected him in the last few years of his life. Toward the end he dragged one leg. Even then, he stubbornly did what he wanted and refused to listen to doctors, indeed he detested them, because they wanted to persuade him to stop eating roast meat, as was his wont, and to be content with boiled meat.<br><br>The physical portrait provided by Einhard is confirmed by contemporary depictions of the emperor, such as coins and his 8-inch bronze statue kept in the Louvre. Charles description of Charlemagne&#39;s height at 7 feet (6 feet 3 inches, or 190.50 centimeters) was not far off. Though it was Herculean stature, particularly in a period in which people were a little shorter than we are today, archaeology has confirmed his tallness: in 1861, Charlemagne&#39;s tomb was opened by scientists who reconstructed his skeleton and found that it indeed measured 74.9 inches (192 centimeters). [8]<br><br>Charles is well known to have been fair-haired, tall, and stately, with a disproportionately thick neck. The Roman tradition of realistic personal portraiture was in complete eclipse in his time, where individual traits were submerged in iconic typecastings. Charlemagne, as an ideal ruler, ought to be portrayed in the corresponding fashion, any contemporary would have assumed. The images of enthroned Charlemagne, God&#39;s representative on Earth, bear more connections to the icons of Christ in majesty than to modern (or antique) conceptions of portraiture. Charlemagne in later imagery (as in the D&uuml;rer portrait) is often portrayed with flowing blond hair, due to a misunderstanding of Einhard, who describes Charlemagne as having canitie pulchra, or &quot;beautiful white hair&quot;, which has been rendered as blonde or fair in many translations.<br><br><strong>Dress</strong></p><p><strong><br> </strong>Part of the treasure in Aachen<br><br>Charlemagne wore the traditional, inconspicuous and distinctly non-aristocratic costume of the Frankish people, described by Einhard thus:<br><br>He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Frank dress: next to his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet, and he protected his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skins.<br><br>He wore a blue cloak and always carried a sword with him. The typical sword was of a golden or silver hilt. He wore fancy jewelled swords to banquets or ambassadorial receptions. Nevertheless:<br><br>He despised foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed himself to be robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned the Roman tunic, chlamys, and shoes; the first time at the request of Pope Hadrian, the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian&#39;s successor.<br><br>He could rise to the occasion when necessary. On great feast days, he wore embroidery and jewels on his clothing and shoes. He had a golden buckle for his cloak on such occasions and would appear with his great diadem, but he despised such apparel, according to Einhard, and usually dressed like the common people.<br><br><br><strong>Rise to power</strong><br><br><br><strong>Early life</strong><br><br>Charlemagne was the eldest child of Pippin the Short (714 &ndash; 24 September 768, reigned from 751) and his wife Bertrada of Laon (720 &ndash; 12 July 783), daughter of Caribert of Laon and Bertrada of Cologne. Records name only Carloman, Gisela, and a short-lived child named Pippin as his younger siblings. The semi-mythical Redburga, wife of King Egbert of Wessex, is sometimes claimed to be his sister (or sister-in-law or niece), and the legendary material makes him Roland&#39;s maternal uncle through a lady Bertha.<br><br>Much of what is known of Charlemagne&#39;s life comes from his biographer, Einhard, who wrote a Vita Caroli Magni (or Vita Karoli Magni), the Life of Charlemagne. Einhard says of the early life of Charles:<br><br>It would be folly, I think, to write a word concerning Charles&#39; birth and infancy, or even his boyhood, for nothing has ever been written on the subject, and there is no one alive now who can give information on it. Accordingly, I determined to pass that by as unknown, and to proceed at once to treat of his character, his deeds, and such other facts of his life as are worth telling and setting forth, and shall first give an account of his deeds at home and abroad, then of his character and pursuits, and lastly of his administration and death, omitting nothing worth knowing or necessary to know.<br><br>On the death of Pippin, the kingdom of the Franks was divided&mdash;following tradition&mdash;between Charlemagne and Carloman. Charles took the outer parts of the kingdom, bordering on the sea, namely Neustria, western Aquitaine, and the northern parts of Austrasia, while Carloman retained the inner parts: southern Austrasia, Septimania, eastern Aquitaine, Burgundy, Provence, and Swabia, lands bordering on Italy.<br><br><br><strong>Joint rule</strong><br><br>On 9 October, immediately after the funeral of their father, both the kings withdrew from Saint Denis to be proclaimed by their nobles and consecrated by the bishops, Charlemagne in Noyon and Carloman in Soissons.<br><br>The first event of the brothers&#39; reign was the rising of the Aquitainians and Gascons, in 769, in that territory split between the two kings. Years before Pippin had suppressed the revolt of Waifer, Duke of Aquitaine. Now, one Hunald (seemingly other than Hunald the duke) led the Aquitainians as far north as Angoul&ecirc;me. Charlemagne met Carloman, but Carloman refused to participate and returned to Burgundy. Charlemagne went to war, leading an army to Bordeaux, where he set up a camp at Fronsac. Hunold was forced to flee to the court of Duke Lupus II of Gascony. Lupus, fearing Charlemagne, turned Hunold over in exchange for peace. He was put in a monastery. Aquitaine was finally fully subdued by the Franks.<br><br>The brothers maintained lukewarm relations with the assistance of their mother Bertrada, but in 770 Charlemagne signed a treaty with Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria and married a Lombard Princess (commonly known today as Desiderata), the daughter of King Desiderius, in order to surround Carloman with his own allies. Though Pope Stephen III first opposed the marriage with the Lombard princess, he would soon have little to fear from a Frankish-Lombard alliance.<br><br>Less than a year after his marriage, Charlemagne repudiated Desiderata, and quickly remarried to a 13-year-old Swabian named Hildegard. The repudiated Desiderata returned to her father&#39;s court at Pavia. The Lombard&#39;s wrath was now aroused and he would gladly have allied with Carloman to defeat Charles. But before war could break out, Carloman died on 5 December 771. Carloman&#39;s wife Gerberga fled to Desiderius&#39; court with her sons for protection.<br><br><br><strong>Italian campaigns</strong><br><br><br><strong>Conquest of Lombardy</strong><br> <br>The Frankish king Charlemagne was a devout Catholic who maintained a close relationship with the papacy throughout his life. In 772, when Pope Hadrian I was threatened by invaders, the king rushed to Rome to provide assistance. Shown here, the pope asks Charlemagne for help at a meeting near Rome<br><br>At the succession of Pope Hadrian I in 772, he demanded the return of certain cities in the former exarchate of Ravenna as in accordance with a promise of Desiderius&#39; succession. Desiderius instead took over certain papal cities and invaded the Pentapolis, heading for Rome. Hadrian sent embassies to Charlemagne in autumn requesting he enforce the policies of his father, Pippin. Desiderius sent his own embassies denying the pope&#39;s charges. The embassies both met at Thionville and Charlemagne upheld the pope&#39;s side. Charlemagne promptly demanded what the pope had demanded and Desiderius promptly swore never to comply. Charlemagne and his uncle Bernard crossed the Alps in 773 and chased the Lombards back to Pavia, which they then besieged. Charlemagne temporarily left the siege to deal with Adelchis, son of Desiderius, who was raising an army at Verona. The young prince was chased to the Adriatic littoral and he fled to Constantinople to plead for assistance from Constantine V, who was waging war with Bulgaria.<br><br>The siege lasted until the spring of 774, when Charlemagne visited the pope in Rome. There he confirmed his father&#39;s grants of land, with some later chronicles claiming&mdash;falsely&mdash;that he also expanded them, granting Tuscany, Emilia, Venice, and Corsica. The pope granted him the title patrician. He then returned to Pavia, where the Lombards were on the verge of surrendering.<br><br>In return for their lives, the Lombards surrendered and opened the gates in early summer. Desiderius was sent to the abbey of Corbie and his son Adelchis died in Constantinople a patrician. Charles, unusually, had himself crowned with the Iron Crown and made the magnates of Lombardy do homage to him at Pavia. Only Duke Arechis II of Benevento refused to submit and proclaimed independence. Charlemagne was now master of Italy as king of the Lombards. He left Italy with a garrison in Pavia and few Frankish counts in place that very year.<br><br>There was still instability, however, in Italy. In 776, Dukes Hrodgaud of Friuli and Hildeprand of Spoleto rebelled. Charlemagne rushed back from Saxony and defeated the duke of Friuli in battle. The duke was slain. The duke of Spoleto signed a treaty. Their co-conspirator, Arechis, was not subdued and Adelchis, their candidate in Byzantium, never left that city. Northern Italy was now faithfully his.<br><br><br><strong>Southern Italy</strong><br><br>In 787 Charlemagne directed his attention towards Benevento, where Arechis was reigning independently. He besieged Salerno and Arechis submitted to vassalage. However, with his death in 792, Benevento again proclaimed independence under his son Grimoald III. Grimoald was attacked by armies of Charles&#39; or his sons&#39; many times, but Charlemagne himself never returned to the Mezzogiorno and Grimoald never was forced to surrender to Frankish suzerainty.<br><strong><br>Charles and his children</strong><br><br><br>During the first peace of any substantial length (780&ndash;782), Charles began to appoint his sons to positions of authority within the realm, in the tradition of the kings and mayors of the past. In 781 he made his two younger sons kings, having them crowned by the Pope. The elder of these two, Carloman, was made king of Italy, taking the Iron Crown which his father had first worn in 774, and in the same ceremony was renamed &quot;Pippin.&quot; The younger of the two, Louis, became king of Aquitaine. Charlemagne ordered Pippin and Louis to be raised in the customs of their kingdoms, and he gave their regents some control of their subkingdoms, but real power was always in his hands, though he intended each to inherit their realm some day. Nor did he tolerate insubordination in his sons: in 792, he banished his eldest, though illegitimate, son, Pippin the Hunchback, to the monastery of Pr&uuml;m, because the young man had joined a rebellion against him.<br><br>The sons fought many wars on behalf of their father when they came of age. Charles was mostly preoccupied with the Bretons, whose border he shared and who insurrected on at least two occasions and were easily put down, but he was also sent against the Saxons on multiple occasions. In 805 and 806, he was sent into the B&ouml;hmerwald (modern Bohemia) to deal with the Slavs living there (Czechs). He subjected them to Frankish authority and devastated the valley of the Elbe, forcing a tribute on them. Pippin had to hold the Avar and Beneventan borders, but also fought the Slavs to his north. He was uniquely poised to fight the Byzantine Empire when finally that conflict arose after Charlemagne&#39;s imperial coronation and a Venetian rebellion. Finally, Louis was in charge of the Spanish March and also went to southern Italy to fight the duke of Benevento on at least one occasion. He took Barcelona in a great siege in the year 797 (see below).<br><br>Charlemagne&#39;s attitude toward his daughters has been the subject of much discussion. He kept them at home with him, and refused to allow them to contract sacramental marriages &ndash; possibly to prevent the creation of cadet branches of the family to challenge the main line, as had been the case with Tassilo of Bavaria &ndash; yet he tolerated their extramarital relationships, even rewarding their common-law husbands, and treasured the bastard grandchildren they produced for him. He also, apparently, refused to believe stories of their wild behaviour. After his death the surviving daughters were banished from the court by their brother, the pious Louis, to take up residence in the convents they had been bequeathed by their father. At least one of them, Bertha, had a recognised relationship, if not a marriage, with Angilbert, a member of Charlemagne&#39;s court circle.<br><br><strong>Spanish campaigns</strong><br><br><br><strong>Roncesvalles campaign</strong><br> <br><br>According to the Muslim historian Ibn al-Athir, the Diet of Paderborn had received the representatives of the Muslim rulers of Zaragoza, Gerona, Barcelona, and Huesca. Their masters had been cornered in the Iberian peninsula by Abd ar-Rahman I, the Umayyad emir of C&oacute;rdoba. These Moorish or &quot;Saracen&quot; rulers offered their homage to the great king of the Franks in return for military support. Seeing an opportunity to extend Christendom and his own power and believing the Saxons to be a fully conquered nation, he agreed to go to Spain.<br><br>In 778, he led the Neustrian army across the Western Pyrenees, while the Austrasians, Lombards, and Burgundians passed over the Eastern Pyrenees. The armies met at Zaragoza and Charlemagne received the homage of the Muslim rulers, Sulayman al-Arabi and Kasmin ibn Yusuf, but the city did not fall for him. Indeed, Charlemagne was facing the toughest battle of his career where the Muslims had the upper hand and forced him to retreat. He decided to go home, since he could not trust the Basques, whom he had subdued by conquering Pamplona. He turned to leave Iberia, but as he was passing through the Pass of Roncesvalles one of the most famous events of his long reign occurred. The Basques fell on his rearguard and baggage train, utterly destroying it. The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, less a battle than a mere skirmish, left many famous dead: among which were the seneschal Eggihard, the count of the palace Anselm, and the warden of the Breton March, Roland, inspiring the subsequent creation of the Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland).<br><br><br><strong>Wars with the Moors</strong><br> <br>Harun al-Rashid receiving a delegation of Charlemagne in Baghdad, by Julius K&ouml;ckert.<br><br>The conquest of Italy brought Charlemagne in contact with the Saracens who, at the time, controlled the Mediterranean. Pippin, his son, was much occupied with Saracens in Italy. Charlemagne conquered Corsica and Sardinia at an unknown date and in 799 the Balearic Islands. The islands were often attacked by Saracen pirates, but the counts of Genoa and Tuscany (Boniface) kept them at bay with large fleets until the end of Charlemagne&#39;s reign. Charlemagne even had contact with the caliphal court in Baghdad. In 797 (or possibly 801), the caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas and a clock.[9]<br><br>In Hispania the struggle against the Moors continued unabated throughout the latter half of his reign. His son Louis was in charge of the Spanish border. In 785, his men captured Gerona permanently and extended Frankish control into the Catalan littoral for the duration of Charlemagne&#39;s reign (and much longer, it remained nominally Frankish until the Treaty of Corbeil in 1258). The Muslim chiefs in the northeast of Islamic Spain were constantly revolting against C&oacute;rdoban authority and they often turned to the Franks for help. The Frankish border was slowly extended until 795, when Gerona, Cardona, Ausona, and Urgel were united into the new Spanish March, within the old duchy of Septimania.<br><br>In 797 Barcelona, the greatest city of the region, fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against C&oacute;rdoba and, failing, handed it to them. The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799. However, Louis of Aquitaine marched the entire army of his kingdom over the Pyrenees and besieged it for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated. The Franks continued to press forwards against the emir. They took Tarragona in 809 and Tortosa in 811. The last conquest brought them to the mouth of the Ebro and gave them raiding access to Valencia, prompting the Emir al-Hakam I to recognise their conquests in 812.<br><br><strong>Eastern campaigns</strong><br><br><strong>Saxon Wars<br> </strong><br><br>Charlemagne was engaged in almost constant battle throughout his reign, often at the head of his elite scara bodyguard squadrons, with his legendary sword Joyeuse in hand. After thirty years of war and eighteen battles&mdash;the Saxon Wars&mdash;he conquered Saxonia and proceeded to convert the conquered to Roman Catholicism, using force where necessary.<br><br>The Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions. Nearest to Austrasia was Westphalia and furthest away was Eastphalia. In between these two kingdoms was that of Engria and north of these three, at the base of the Jutland peninsula, was Nordalbingia.<br><br>In his first campaign, Charlemagne forced the Engrians in 773 to submit and cut down an Irminsul pillar near Paderborn. The campaign was cut short by his first expedition to Italy. He returned in the year 775, marching through Westphalia and conquering the Saxon fort of Sigiburg. He then crossed Engria, where he defeated the Saxons again. Finally, in Eastphalia, he defeated a Saxon force, and its leader Hessi converted to Christianity. He returned through Westphalia, leaving encampments at Sigiburg and Eresburg, which had, up until then, been important Saxon bastions. All Saxony but Nordalbingia was under his control, but Saxon resistance had not ended.<br><br>Following his campaign in Italy subjugating the dukes of Friuli and Spoleto, Charlemagne returned very rapidly to Saxony in 776, where a rebellion had destroyed his fortress at Eresburg. The Saxons were once again brought to heel, but their main leader, duke Widukind, managed to escape to Denmark, home of his wife. Charlemagne built a new camp at Karlstadt. In 777, he called a national diet at Paderborn to integrate Saxony fully into the Frankish kingdom. Many Saxons were baptised.<br><br>In the summer of 779, he again invaded Saxony and reconquered Eastphalia, Engria, and Westphalia. At a diet near Lippe, he divided the land into missionary districts and himself assisted in several mass baptisms (780). He then returned to Italy and, for the first time, there was no immediate Saxon revolt. In 780 Charlemagne decreed the death penalty for all Saxons who failed to be baptised, who failed to keep Christian festivals, and who cremated their dead. Saxony had peace from 780 to 782.<br> <br><br>He returned in 782 to Saxony and instituted a code of law and appointed counts, both Saxon and Frank. The laws were draconian on religious issues, and the indigenous forms of Germanic polytheism were gravely threatened by Christianisation. This stirred a renewal of the old conflict. That year, in autumn, Widukind returned and led a new revolt, which resulted in several assaults on the church. In response, at Verden in Lower Saxony, Charlemagne allegedly ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who had been caught practising their native paganism after conversion to Christianity, known as the Massacre of Verden (&quot;Verdener Blutgericht&quot;). The massacre triggered three years of renewed bloody warfare (783-785). During this war the Frisians were also finally subdued and a large part of their fleet was burned. The war ended with Widukind accepting baptism.<br><br>Thereafter, the Saxons maintained the peace for seven years, but in 792 the Westphalians once again rose against their conquerors. The Eastphalians and Nordalbingians joined them in 793, but the insurrection did not catch on and was put down by 794. An Engrian rebellion followed in 796, but Charlemagne&#39;s personal presence and the presence of Christian Saxons and Slavs quickly crushed it. The last insurrection of the independence-minded people occurred in 804, more than thirty years after Charlemagne&#39;s first campaign against them. This time, the most unruly of them, the Nordalbingians, found themselves effectively disempowered from rebellion. According to Einhard:<br><br>The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.<br><br>Saxon resistance to Charlemagne&#39;s rule was at an end.<br><br><br><strong>Submission of Bavaria</strong><br><br>In 788, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. He claimed Tassilo was an unfit ruler on account of his oath-breaking. The charges were trumped up, but Tassilo was deposed anyway and put in the monastery of Jumi&egrave;ges. In 794, he was made to renounce any claim to Bavaria for himself and his family (the Agilolfings) at the synod of Frankfurt. Bavaria was subdivided into Frankish counties, like Saxony.<br><br><strong>Avar campaigns</strong><br><br>In 788, the Avars, a pagan Asian horde which had settled down in what is today Hungary (Einhard called them Huns), invaded Friuli and Bavaria. Charles was preoccupied until 790 with other things, but in that year, he marched down the Danube into their territory and ravaged it to the Raab. Then, a Lombard army under Pippin marched into the Drava valley and ravaged Pannonia. The campaigns would have continued if the Saxons had not revolted again in 792, breaking seven years of peace.<br><br>For the next two years, Charles was occupied with the Slavs against the Saxons. Pippin and Duke Eric of Friuli continued, however, to assault the Avars&#39; ring-shaped strongholds. The great Ring of the Avars, their capital fortress, was taken twice. The booty was sent to Charlemagne at his capital, Aachen, and redistributed to all his followers and even to foreign rulers, including King Offa of Mercia. Soon the Avar tuduns had thrown in the towel and travelled to Aachen to subject themselves to Charlemagne as vassals and Christians. This Charlemagne accepted and sent one native chief, baptised Abraham, back to Avaria with the ancient title of khagan. Abraham kept his people in line, but in 800 the Bulgarians under Krum swept the Avar state away. In the 10th century, the Magyars settled the Pannonian plain and presented a new threat to Charlemagne&#39;s descendants.<br><br><br><strong>Slav expeditions</strong><br><br>In 789, in recognition of his new pagan neighbours, the Slavs, Charlemagne marched an Austrasian-Saxon army across the Elbe into Obotrite territory. The Slavs immediately submitted under their leader Witzin. He then accepted the surrender of the Wiltzes under Dragovit and demanded many hostages and the permission to send, unmolested, missionaries into the pagan region. The army marched to the Baltic before turning around and marching to the Rhine with much booty and no harassment. The tributary Slavs became loyal allies. In 795, the peace broken by the Saxons, the Abotrites and Wiltzes rose in arms with their new master against the Saxons. Witzin died in battle and Charlemagne avenged him by harrying the Eastphalians on the Elbe. Thrasuco, his successor, led his men to conquest over the Nordalbingians and handed their leaders over to Charlemagne, who greatly honoured him. The Abotrites remained loyal until Charles&#39; death and fought later against the Danes.<br><br>Charlemagne also directed his attention to the Slavs to the south of the Avar khaganate: the Carantanians and Carniolans. These people were subdued by the Lombards and Bavarii and made tributaries, but never incorporated into the Frankish state.<br><br><br><strong>Imperium</strong><br><br><br><strong>Imperial diplomacy</strong><br> <br>In 799, Pope Leo III had been mistreated by the Romans, who tried to put out his eyes and tear out his tongue. Leo escaped, and fled to Charlemagne at Paderborn, asking him to intervene in Rome and restore him. Charlemagne, advised by Alcuin of York, agreed to travel to Rome, doing so in November 800 and holding a council on December 1. On 23 December Leo swore an oath of innocence. At Mass, on Christmas Day (25 December), when Charlemagne knelt at the altar to pray, the pope crowned him Imperator Romanorum (&quot;Emperor of the Romans&quot;) in Saint Peter&#39;s Basilica. In so doing, the pope was effectively attempting to transfer the office from Constantinople to Charles. Einhard says that Charlemagne was ignorant of the pope&#39;s intent and did not want any such coronation:<br><br>[H]e at first had such an aversion that he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that they [the imperial titles] were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope.<br><br>Many modern scholars suggest that Charlemagne was indeed aware of the coronation; certainly he cannot have missed the bejeweled crown waiting on the altar when he came to pray. In any event, he used these circumstances to claim that he was the renewer of the Roman Empire, which had apparently fallen into degradation under the Byzantines. In his official charters from 801 onward, Charles preferred the style Karolus serenissimus Augustus a Deo coronatus magnus pacificus imperator Romanum gubernans imperium (&quot;Charles, most serene Augustus crowned by God, the great, peaceful emperor ruling the Roman empire&quot;) to the more direct Imperator Romanorum (&quot;Emperor of the Romans&quot;).[10]<br><br>The Iconoclasm of the Isaurian Dynasty and resulting religious conflicts with the Empress Irene, sitting on the throne in Constantinople in 800, were probably the chief causes of the pope&#39;s desire to formally acclaim Charles as Roman Emperor. He also most certainly desired to increase the influence of the papacy, honour his saviour Charlemagne, and solve the constitutional issues then most troubling to European jurists in an era when Rome was not in the hands of an emperor. Thus, Charlemagne&#39;s assumption of the imperial title was not an usurpation in the eyes of the Franks or Italians. It was, however, in Byzantium, where it was protested by Irene and her successor Nicephorus I&mdash;neither of whom had any great effect in enforcing their protests.<br><br>The Byzantines, however, still held several territories in Italy: Venice (what was left of the Exarchate of Ravenna), Reggio (in Calabria), Brindisi (in Apulia), and Naples (the Ducatus Neapolitanus). These regions remained outside of Frankish hands until 804, when the Venetians, torn by infighting, transferred their allegiance to the Iron Crown of Pippin, Charles&#39; son. The Pax Nicephori ended. Nicephorus ravaged the coasts with a fleet and the only instance of war between the Byzantines and the Franks, as it was, began. It lasted until 810, when the pro-Byzantine party in Venice gave their city back to the Byzantine Emperor and the two emperors of Europe made peace: Charlemagne received the Istrian peninsula and in 812 the emperor Michael I Rhangabes recognised his status as Emperor,[11] although not necessarily as &quot;Emperor of the Romans&quot;.[12]<br><br><br><strong>Danish attacks</strong><br><br>After the conquest of Nordalbingia, the Frankish frontier was brought into contact with Scandinavia. The pagan Danes, &quot;a race almost unknown to his ancestors, but destined to be only too well known to his sons&quot; as Charles Oman described them, inhabiting the Jutland peninsula had heard many stories from Widukind and his allies who had taken refuge with them about the dangers of the Franks and the fury which their Christian king could direct against pagan neighbours.<br><br>In 808, the king of the Danes, Godfred, built the vast Danevirke across the isthmus of Schleswig. This defence, last employed in the Danish-Prussian War of 1864, was at its beginning a 30 km long earthenwork rampart. The Danevirke protected Danish land and gave Godfred the opportunity to harass Frisia and Flanders with pirate raids. He also subdued the Frank-allied Wiltzes and fought the Abotrites.<br><br>Godfred invaded Frisia and joked of visiting Aachen, but was murdered before he could do any more, either by a Frankish assassin or by one of his own men. Godfred was succeeded by his nephew Hemming, who concluded the Treaty of Heiligen with Charlemagne in late 811.<br><br><br><strong>Death</strong><br> <br><br>In 813, Charlemagne called Louis the Pious, king of Aquitaine, his only surviving legitimate son, to his court. There Charlemagne crowned his son with his own hands as co-emperor and sent him back to Aquitaine. He then spent the autumn hunting before returning to Aachen on 1 November. In January, he fell ill with pleurisy.[13] He took to his bed on 21 January and as Einhard tells it:<br><br>He died January twenty-eighth, the seventh day from the time that he took to his bed, at nine o&#39;clock in the morning, after partaking of the Holy Communion, in the seventy-second year of his age and the forty-seventh of his reign.</p><p><br> <br>He was buried on the day of his death, in Aachen Cathedral, although the cold weather and the nature of his illness made such a hurried burial unnecessary. The earliest surviving planctus, the Planctus de obitu Karoli, was composed by a monk of Bobbio, which he had patronised.[14] A later story, told by Otho of Lomello, Count of the Palace at Aachen in the time of Otto III, would claim that he and Emperor Otto had discovered Charlemagne&#39;s tomb: the emperor, they claimed, was seated upon a throne, wearing a crown and holding a sceptre, his flesh almost entirely incorrupt. In 1165, Frederick I re-opened the tomb again, and placed the emperor in a sarcophagus beneath the floor of the cathedral.[15] In 1215 Frederick II would re-inter him in a casket made of gold and silver.<br><br>Charlemagne&#39;s death greatly affected many of his subjects, particularly those of the literary clique who had surrounded him at Aachen. An anonymous monk of Bobbio lamented:<br><br>From the lands where the sun rises to western shores, People are crying and wailing...the Franks, the Romans, all Christians, are stung with mourning and great worry...the young and old, glorious nobles, all lament the loss of their Caesar...the world laments the death of Charles...O Christ, you who govern the heavenly host, grant a peaceful place to Charles in your kingdom. Alas for miserable me.[16]<br><br>He was succeeded by his surviving son, Louis, who had been crowned the previous year. His empire lasted only another generation in its entirety; its division, according to custom, between Louis&#39;s own sons after their father&#39;s death laid the foundation for the modern states of France and Germany.<br><br><br><strong>Administration</strong><br><br>As an administrator, Charlemagne stands out for his many reforms: monetary, governmental, military, cultural and ecclesiastical. He is the main protagonist of the &quot;Carolingian Renaissance.&quot;<br><br><br><strong>Economic and monetary reforms</strong><br> <br><br>Charlemagne had an important role in determining the immediate economic future of Europe. Pursuing his father&#39;s reforms, Charlemagne abolished the monetary system based on the gold sou, and he and the Anglo-Saxon King Offa of Mercia took up the system set in place by Pippin. There were strong pragmatic reasons for this abandonment of a gold standard, notably a shortage of gold itself, a direct consequence of the conclusion of peace with Byzantium and the ceding of Venice and Sicily, and the loss of their trade routes to Africa and to the east. This standardisation also had the effect of economically harmonising and unifying the complex array of currencies in use at the commencement of his reign, thus simplifying trade and commerce.<br> <br>He established a new standard, the livre carolinienne (from the Latin libra, the modern pound), and based upon a pound of silver &ndash; a unit of both money and weight &ndash; which was worth 20 sous (from the Latin solidus [which was primarily an accounting device, and never actually minted], the modern shilling) or 240 deniers (from the Latin denarius, the modern penny). During this period, the livre and the sou were counting units, only the denier was a coin of the realm.<br><br>Charlemagne instituted principles for accounting practice by means of the Capitulare de villis of 802, which laid down strict rules for the way in which incomes and expenses were to be recorded.<br><br>The lending of money for interest was prohibited, strengthened in 814, when Charlemagne introduced the Capitulary for the Jews, a draconian prohibition on Jews engaging in money-lending.<br><br>In addition to this macro-management of the economy of his empire, Charlemagne also performed a significant number of acts of micro-management, such as direct control of prices and levies on certain goods and commodities.<br><br>Charlemagne applied the system to much of the European continent, and Offa&#39;s standard was voluntarily adopted by much of England. After Charlemagne&#39;s death, continental coinage degraded and most of Europe resorted to using the continued high quality English coin until about 1100.<br><br>Education reforms<br><br>A part of Charlemagne&#39;s success as warrior and administrator can be traced to his admiration for learning. His reign and the era it ushered in are often referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance because of the flowering of scholarship, literature, art, and architecture which characterise it. Charlemagne, brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries (especially Visigothic Spain, Anglo-Saxon England and Lombard Italy) due to his vast conquests, greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book-copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Indeed, the earliest manuscripts available for many ancient texts are Carolingian. It is almost certain that a text which survived to the Carolingian age survives still. The pan-European nature of Charlemagne&#39;s influence is indicated by the origins of many of the men who worked for him: Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon from York; Theodulf, a Visigoth, probably from Septimania; Paul the Deacon, Lombard; Peter of Pisa and Paulinus of Aquileia, Italians; and Angilbert, Angilramm, Einhard and Waldo of Reichenau, Franks.<br><br>Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the liberal arts at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself (in a time when even leaders who promoted education did not take time to learn themselves) under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialectic (logic) and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. His great scholarly failure, as Einhard relates, was his inability to write: when in his old age he began attempts to learn &ndash; practicing the formation of letters in his bed during his free time on books and wax tablets he hid under his pillow &ndash; &quot;his effort came too late in life and achieved little success&quot;, and his ability to read &ndash; which Einhard is silent about, and which no contemporary source supports &ndash; has also been called into question.<br><br><br><br><strong>Writing reforms</strong><br> <br><br>During Charles&#39; reign, the Roman half uncial script and its cursive version, which had given rise to various continental minuscule scripts, were combined with features from the insular scripts that were being used in Irish and English monasteries. Carolingian minuscule was created partly under the patronage of Charlemagne. Alcuin of York, who ran the palace school and scriptorium at Aachen, was probably a chief influence in this. The revolutionary character of the Carolingian reform, however, can be over-emphasised; efforts at taming the crabbed Merovingian and Germanic hands had been underway before Alcuin arrived at Aachen. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, and later from the influential scriptorium at Tours, where Alcuin retired as an abbot.<br><br><br><strong>Political reforms</strong><br><br>Charlemagne engaged in many reforms of Frankish governance, but he continued also in many traditional practices, such as the division of the kingdom among sons.<br><br><br><strong>Organisation</strong><br>Main article: Government of the Carolingian Empire<br><br>The Carolingian king exercised the bannum, the right to rule and command. He had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the Church and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organise the kingdom, church and nobility around him, however, it was entirely dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects.<br><br><br><strong>Imperial coronation</strong><br> <br><br>Historians have debated for centuries whether Charlemagne was aware of the Pope&#39;s intent to crown him Emperor prior to the coronation (Charlemagne declared that he would not have entered Saint Peter&#39;s had he known), but that debate has often obscured the more significant question of why the Pope granted the title and why Charlemagne chose to accept it once he did.<br><br>Roger Collins points out[18] &quot;That the motivation behind the acceptance of the imperial title was a romantic and antiquarian interest in reviving the Roman empire is highly unlikely.&quot; For one thing, such romance would not have appealed either to Franks or Roman Catholics at the turn of the ninth century, both of whom viewed the Classical heritage of the Roman Empire with distrust. The Franks took pride in having &quot;fought against and thrown from their shoulders the heavy yoke of the Romans&quot; and &quot;from the knowledge gained in baptism, clothed in gold and precious stones the bodies of the holy martyrs whom the Romans had killed by fire, by the sword and by wild animals&quot;, as Pippin III described it in a law of 763 or 764 (Collins 151). Furthermore, the new title&mdash;carrying with it the risk that the new emperor would &quot;make drastic changes to the traditional styles and procedures of government&quot; or &quot;concentrate his attentions on Italy or on Mediterranean concerns more generally&quot;&mdash;risked alienating the Frankish leadership.[19]<br><br>For both the Pope and Charlemagne, the Roman Empire remained a significant power in European politics at this time, and continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with borders not very far south of the city of Rome itself&mdash;this is the empire historiography has labelled the Byzantine Empire, for its capital was Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and its people and rulers were Greek; it was a thoroughly Hellenic state. Indeed, Charlemagne was usurping the prerogatives of the Roman Emperor in Constantinople simply by sitting in judgement over the Pope in the first place:<br><br>By whom, however, could he [the Pope] be tried? Who, in other words, was qualified to pass judgement on the Vicar of Christ? In normal circumstances the only conceivable answer to that question would have been the Emperor at Constantinople; but the imperial throne was at this moment occupied by Irene. That the Empress was notorious for having blinded and murdered her own son was, in the minds of both Leo and Charles, almost immaterial: it was enough that she was a woman. The female sex was known to be incapable of governing, and by the old Salic tradition was debarred from doing so. As far as Western Europe was concerned, the Throne of the Emperors was vacant: Irene&#39;s claim to it was merely an additional proof, if any were needed, of the degradation into which the so-called Roman Empire had fallen.<br> <br><br>For the Pope, then, there was &quot;no living Emperor at the that time&quot; (Norwich 379), though Henri Pirenne (Mohammed and Charlemagne, pg. 234n) disputes this saying that the coronation &quot;was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople.&quot; Nonetheless, the Pope took the extraordinary step of creating one. The papacy had since 727 been in conflict with Irene&#39;s predecessors in Constantinople over a number of issues, chiefly the continued Byzantine adherence to the doctrine of iconoclasm, the destruction of Christian images; while from 750, the secular power of the Byzantine Empire in central Italy had been nullified. By bestowing the Imperial crown upon Charlemagne, the Pope arrogated to himself &quot;the right to appoint ... the Emperor of the Romans, ... establishing the imperial crown as his own personal gift but simultaneously granting himself implicit superiority over the Emperor whom he had created.&quot; And &quot;because the Byzantines had proved so unsatisfactory from every point of view&mdash;political, military and doctrinal&mdash;he would select a westerner: the one man who by his wisdom and statesmanship and the vastness of his dominions ... stood out head and shoulders above his contemporaries.&quot;<br><br>With Charlemagne&#39;s coronation, therefore, &quot;the Roman Empire remained, so far as either of them [Charlemagne and Leo] were concerned, one and indivisible, with Charles as its Emperor&quot;, though there can have been &quot;little doubt that the coronation, with all that it implied, would be furiously contested in Constantinople.&quot; (Norwich, Byzantium: The Apogee, pg. 3) How realistic either Charlemagne or the Pope felt it to be that the people of Constantinople would ever accept the King of the Franks as their Emperor, we cannot know; Alcuin speaks hopefully in his letters of an Imperium Christianum (&quot;Christian Empire&quot;), wherein, &quot;just as the inhabitants of the [Roman Empire] had been united by a common Roman citizenship&quot;, presumably this new empire would be united by a common Christian faith (Collins 151), certainly this is the view of Pirenne when he says &quot;Charles was the Emperor of the ecclesia as the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church&quot; (Pirenne 233).<br> <br><br>What we do know, from the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes (Collins 153), is that Charlemagne&#39;s reaction to his coronation was to take the initial steps toward securing the Constantinopolitan throne by sending envoys of marriage to Irene, and that Irene reacted somewhat favorably to them. Only when the people of Constantinople reacted to Irene&#39;s failure to immediately rebuff the proposal by deposing her and replacing her with one of her ministers, Nicephorus I, did Charlemagne drop any ambitions toward the Byzantine throne and begin minimising his new Imperial title, and instead return to describing himself primarily as rex Francorum et Langobardum.<br><br>The title of emperor remained in his family for years to come, however, as brothers fought over who had the supremacy in the Frankish state. The papacy itself never forgot the title nor abandoned the right to bestow it. When the family of Charles ceased to produce worthy heirs, the pope gladly crowned whichever Italian magnate could best protect him from his local enemies. This devolution led, as could have been expected, to the dormancy of the title for almost forty years (924-962). Finally, in 962, in a radically different Europe from Charlemagne&#39;s, a new Roman Emperor was crowned in Rome by a grateful pope. This emperor, Otto the Great, brought the title into the hands the kings of Germany for almost a millennium, for it was to become the Holy Roman Empire, a true imperial successor to Charles, if not Augustus.<br><br><br><strong>Divisio regnorum</strong><br><br>In 806, Charlemagne first made provision for the traditional division of the empire on his death. For Charles the Younger he designated Austrasia and Neustria, Saxony, Burgundy, and Thuringia. To Pippin he gave Italy, Bavaria, and Swabia. Louis received Aquitaine, the Spanish March, and Provence. There was no mention of the imperial title however, which has led to the suggestion that, at that particular time, Charlemagne regarded the title as an honorary achievement which held no hereditary significance.<br><br>This division may have worked, but it was never to be tested. Pippin died in 810 and Charles in 811. Charlemagne then reconsidered the matter, and in 813, crowned his youngest son, Louis, co-emperor and co-King of the Franks, granting him a half-share of the empire and the rest upon Charlemagne&#39;s own death. The only part of the Empire which Louis was not promised was Italy, which Charlemagne specifically bestowed upon Pippin&#39;s illegitimate son Bernard.<br> <br><br><strong>Cultural significance</strong></p><p><strong><br></strong>Charlemagne had an immediate afterlife. The author of the Visio Karoli Magni written around 865 uses facts gathered apparently from Einhard and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne&#39;s family after the dissensions of civil war (840&ndash;43) as the basis for a visionary tale of Charles&#39; meeting with a prophetic spectre in a dream.<br><br>Charlemagne, being a model knight as one of the Nine Worthies, enjoyed an important afterlife in European culture. One of the great medieval literary cycles, the Charlemagne cycle or the Matter of France, centres on the deeds of Charlemagne&mdash;the King with the Grizzly Beard of Roland fame&mdash;and his historical commander of the border with Brittany, Roland, and the paladins who are analogous to the knights of the Round Table or King Arthur&#39;s court. Their tales constitute the first chansons de geste.<br><br>Charlemagne himself was accorded sainthood inside the Holy Roman Empire after the twelfth century. His canonisation by Antipope Paschal III, to gain the favour of Frederick Barbarossa in 1165, was never recognised by the Holy See, which annulled all of Paschal&#39;s ordinances at the Third Lateran Council in 1179. However, he has been acknowledged as cultus confirmed. In the Divine Comedy the spirit of Charlemagne appears to Dante in the Heaven of Mars, among the other &quot;warriors of the faith.&quot;<br><br>Charlemagne is sometimes credited with supporting the insertion of the filioque into the Nicene Creed. The Franks had inherited a Visigothic tradition of referring to the Holy Spirit as deriving from God the Father and Son (Filioque), and under Charlemagne, the Franks challenged the 381 Council of Constantinople proclamation that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone. Pope Leo III rejected this notion, and had the Nicene Creed carved into the doors of Old St. Peter&#39;s Basilica without the offending phrase; the Frankish insistence lead to bad relations between Rome and Francia. Later, the Roman Catholic Church would adopt the phrase, leading to dispute between Rome and Constantinople. Some see this as one of many pre-cursors to the East-West Schism centuries later.[20]<br><br>French volunteers in the Wehrmacht and later Waffen-SS during the World War II were organised in a unit called 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French). A German Waffen-SS unit used &quot;Karl der Gro&szlig;e&quot; for some time in 1943, but then chose the name 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg instead.<br><br>The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (called the Karlspreis der Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to &quot;personages of merit who have promoted the idea of western unity by their political, economic and literary endeavours.&quot;[21] Winners of the prize include Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, the founder of the pan-European movement, Alcide De Gasperi, and Winston Churchill.<br><br>Charlemagne is memorably quoted by Dr Henry Jones Sr. (played by Sean Connery) in the film, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Immediately after using his umbrella to induce a flock of seagulls to smash through the glass cockpit of a pursuing German fighter plane, Henry Jones remarks &quot;I suddenly remembered my Charlemagne: &#39;Let my armies be the rocks and the trees and the birds in the sky&#39;.&quot; Despite the quote&#39;s popularity since the movie, there is no evidence that Charlemagne actually said this.<br><br><br><strong>Family</strong><br><br><br><strong>Marriages and heirs</strong><br><br>Charlemagne had twenty children over the course of his life with eight of his ten known wives or concubines. Nonetheless, he only had four legitimate grandsons, the four sons of his third son Louis, plus a grandson who was born illegitimate, but included in the line of inheritance in any case (Bernard of Italy, only son of Charlemagne&#39;s third son Pepin of Italy), so that the claimants to his inheritance remained few.</p><p><br>His first relationship was with Himiltrude. The nature of this relationship is variously described as concubinage, a legal marriage or as a Friedelehe.[23] (Charlemagne put her aside when he married Desiderata.) The union with Himiltrude produced two children: <br>Amaudru, a daughter[24]<br>Pippin the Hunchback (c. 769-811)<br>After her, his first wife was Desiderata, daughter of Desiderius, king of the Lombards; married in 770, annulled in 771<br>His second wife was Hildegard (757 or 758-783), married 771, died 783. By her he had nine children: <br>Charles the Younger (c.772-4 December 811), Duke of Maine, and crowned King of the Franks on 25 December 800<br>Carloman, renamed Pippin (April 773-8 July 810), King of Italy<br>Adalhaid (774), who was born whilst her parents were on campaign in Italy. She was sent back to Francia, but died before reaching Lyons<br>Rotrude (or Hruodrud) (775-6 June 810)<br>Louis (778-20 June 840), twin of Lothair, King of Aquitaine since 781, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 813, senior Emperor from 814<br>Lothair (778-6 February 779/780), twin of Louis, he died in infancy[25]<br>Bertha (779-826)<br>Gisela (781-808)<br>Hildegarde (782-783)<br>His third wife was Fastrada, married 784, died 794. By her he had: <br>Theodrada (b.784), abbess of Argenteuil<br>Hiltrude (b.787)<br>His fourth wife was Luitgard, married 794, died childless<br><br><br><strong>Concubinages and illegitimate children</strong><br>His first known concubine was Gersuinda. By her he had: <br>Adaltrude (b.774)<br>His second known concubine was Madelgard. By her he had: <br>Ruodhaid (775-810), abbess of Faremoutiers<br>His third known concubine was Amaltrud of Vienne. By her he had: <br>Alpaida (b.794)<br>His fourth known concubine was Regina. By her he had: <br>Drogo (801-855), Bishop of Metz from 823 and abbot of Luxeuil Abbey<br>Hugh (802-844), archchancellor of the Empire<br>His fifth known concubine was Ethelind. By her he had: <br>Richbod (805-844), Abbott of Saint-Riquier<br>Theodoric (b. 807)</p>

  • Story: Charlemagne 's Cathedral

    <div> <div> Info Centre Charlemagne Stations Agenda News Contact Terms &amp; Conditions <br><br> </div> </div> Charlemagne&#39;s idea was to create a sacral centre of his empire in Aachen <div> <p>But this was not just to put his own personal faith on record. On the contrary, the introduction of a common Christian religion with a standardised liturgy was also one of his political power bases. St. Mary&#39;s Church, today&#39;s Cathedral, was intended as an expression of this power. It was built over the past years of the 8th century and combined Byzantine and Antique architectural styles. The impact of the new church on contemporaries was enormous. This was the first time since the days of antiquity that a domed structure of this size had been successfully accomplished north of the Alps.</p> In 814, Charlemagne was laid to rest here <p>The centuries that followed saw an increasing sacralisation of the emperor which reached its climax in the legendary opening of his tomb in 1000 and in his canonisation in 1165. Since 1215 Charlemagne&#39;s mortal remains have rested in a golden shrine now situated in the centre of the cancel. The golden alterpiece (ca. 1000), the pulpit (pre-1014) and the chandelier donated by Friedrich Barbarossa (ca.1165) all date from this era.</p> On this throne, from 936 onwards, the German kings were crowned <p>The central element of St. Mary&#39;s Church is an octagon surrounded by a sixteen-sided walkway. On a gallery stands a marble throne, presumed to have symbolised the Lordship of Christ. It was on this throne that, from 936 onwards, the German kings were crowned. The Carolingian core structure of the church survives to this day. The mighty westwork with its entrance hall and massive bronze portal also dates back to the times of Charlemagne.</p> Tradition has it that Charlemagne brought some of the most precious relics in all Christendom to Aachen <p>Their rediscovery in the 14th century inspired a tradition of pilgrimage that elevated Aachen to the same rank as Rome and Santiago de Compostela as a European destination for pilgrims. The relics are kept in another shrine in the cancel. Worship of the relics through pilgrimage began in 1349 and continues to this day. Like the coronations, the pilgrimages were an important economic and cultural factor for the medieval town.</p> <p>To cater for the huge celebrations of coronations and pilgrimages, a new cancel was inaugurated in 1414, on the 600th anniversary of Charlemagne&#39;s death. After the octagon, this is the Cathedral&#39;s second architectural masterpiece, for the greater part of its exterior fa&ccedil;ade consists of glass. The enormous weight of the vaulting seems to rest on slender pillars without any further means of support. In reality, the weight is borne by a complicated anchoring system.</p> In 1978, it became the first German monument to be declared by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage site <p>In addition, since the 13th century a ring of lateral chapels has formed around the church. A cloister connects the church to the Cathedral monastery and today&#39;s Cathedral Treasury. The Cathedral was first elevated to the status of a bishop&#39;s seat for a while during Napoleonic times and then permanently in 1930. A planned visitors&#39; centre will provide information on the Cathedral.</p> <p>In the framework of the Route Charlemagne, the Cathedral, the Cathedral Treasury and the Cathedral Information will represent the theme &quot;Religion&quot;. They will complement the exhibitions on the city&#39;s history in the Town Hall and in the future Centre Charlemagne.</p> </div> <div style=": relative; margin-: 2.7em"> <div style="width: 5em; line-height: 5em; height: 5em; : relative; float: ; background-color: #e0d8c3; margin-right: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; overflow: hidden; text-align: center"> </div> <div style="width: 5em; line-height: 5em; height: 5em; : relative; float: ; background-color: #e0d8c3; margin-right: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; overflow: hidden; text-align: center"> </div> <div style="width: 5em; line-height: 5em; height: 5em; : relative; float: ; background-color: #e0d8c3; margin-right: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; overflow: hidden; text-align: center"> </div> <div style="width: 5em; line-height: 5em; height: 5em; : relative; float: ; background-color: #e0d8c3; margin-right: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; overflow: hidden; text-align: center"> </div> <div style="width: 5em; line-height: 5em; height: 5em; : relative; float: ; background-color: #e0d8c3; margin-right: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; overflow: hidden; text-align: center"> </div> <div style="width: 5em; line-height: 5em; height: 5em; : relative; float: ; background-color: #e0d8c3; margin-right: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; overflow: hidden; text-align: center"> </div> </div>

  • Story: Cathedral At Aachen

    <div> <div> <div style="padding-: 5px; padding-bottom: 5px"> </div> &nbsp; <div style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms',arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11px; font-weight: bold; color: #ffffff; padding-bottom: 5px"> <div align="center">Discover religious and cultural destinations around the world. </div> </div> &nbsp; <div> Enter your search terms Submit search form </div> </div> <div><div style="padding: 0px; background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% #666666; border: 1px solid #666666; z-index: 999; visibility: visible; : relative; width: 1038px">HOME&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;RANDOM!&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CATEGORIES&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<div style="border: medium none; background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; display: block; color: #ffffff; font-family: georgia,times,serif; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none">PLACES (A-E)</div>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<div style="border: medium none; background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; display: block; color: #ffffff; 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background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; display: block; color: #ffffff; font-family: georgia,times,serif; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none">REFERENCE</div>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ABOUT </div></div> <div> <div>Germany</div>Sacred Sites Index<div style="padding-bottom: 3px; padding-: 3px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #cccccc">Country Guide:</div>Germany MapGermany BooksGermany HotelsGermany HostelsGermany ToursGermany Rail PassesGermany Photos<div style="padding-bottom: 3px; padding-: 3px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #cccccc">City Guides:</div>AachenAugsburgBerlinBonnCologneEisenachEislebenErfurtHildesheimLeipzigMunichMunsterOberammergauRegensburgTrierWittenbergWorms<div>Aachen</div>Introduction<div style="padding-bottom: 3px; padding-: 3px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #cccccc">City Guide:</div>Aachen MapAachen Hotels<div style="padding-bottom: 3px; padding-: 3px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #cccccc">Attractions:</div>Aachen Cathedral <div>Categories</div>CathedralsGothic ChurchesPersonally VisitedWorld Heritage Sites<div>Reference</div>Church GlossaryMedieval Timeline <div>Related Books</div><br>Early Medieval Art: Carolingian, Ottonian, Romanesque<br><br><br>Word and Image: Art of the Early Middle Ages, 600-1050<br><br><br>Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture, 800-1200<br><br><br>Lonely Planet Western Europe<br><br><br>Insight Guide Germany<br><br><br>Rick Steves&#39; Germany 2010<br><br><br>Frommer&#39;s Germany 2010<br><br><br>Lonely Planet Central Europe<br><br><br>A Traveller&#39;s History of Germany<br><br><br>DK Eyewitness Travel Guide to Germany<br><br><br>Christian Travelers Guide to Germany<br><br><br>Lonely Planet Germany<br><br><br>Rough Guide to Germany 7<br><br></div> <div> <div>Germany / Aachen / Aachen Cathedral</div> Aachen Cathedral&nbsp;&nbsp; <div><div> <br> View of Aachen Cathedral from the north, with the Palatine in the center.<br> See more and larger photos in our <strong>Aachen Cathedral Photo Gallery</strong>.<br> <br> <br> Exterior of Aachen Cathedral, with the Palatine Chapel in the center.<br> <br> <br> Interior of the octagonal Palatine Chapel, built by Charlemagne.<br> <br> <br> Octagonal dome with mosaics (clouded with incense following a service).<br> <br><br> The Shrine of Mary (1238).<br> <br> <br> Charlemagne, Leo III and Turpin on the Shrine of Charlemagne (1215).<br> <br> <br> Barbarossa&#39;s Chandelier (1165-84).<br> <br> <br> Detail of Barbarossa&#39;s chandelier, with towers of the New Jerusalem.<br> <br> <br> The Pala d&#39;Oro (c.1000 AD).<br> <br> <br> Detail of Christ on the Pala d&#39;Oro.<br> <br> <br> A spectacular wall of glass in the Gothic choir (1414).<br> <br> <br> The Throne of Charlemagne.<br> <br> <br> The robe of Mary displayed in June 2007. <em>Image &copy; Aachen Cathedral.</em> <br><br> <div style="width: 350px; height: 265px; : relative; background-color: #e5e3df"><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; overflow: hidden; width: 100%; height: 100%"><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; z-index: 0; cursor: url(''http://maps.gstatic.com/intl/en_all/mapfiles/openhand_8_8.cur'')"><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; display: none"><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; z-index: 0"></div><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; z-index: 1"></div></div><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px"><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; z-index: 0"></div><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; z-index: 1"></div></div><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; z-index: 102"></div><div style=": absolute; : 0px; : 0px; z-index: 104; cursor: default"></div></div></div><div style="-moz-user-select: none; z-index: 0; : absolute; : 2px; bottom: 2px"></div><div style="-moz-user-select: none; z-index: 0; : absolute; right: 3px; bottom: 2px; color: white; font-family: arial,sans-serif; 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background-color: white; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; width: 5em; right: 0em; cursor: pointer"><div style="font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; border-width: 1px; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(52, 86, 132) rgb(108, 157, 223) rgb(108, 157, 223) rgb(52, 86, 132)">Hybrid</div></div></div></div> Location map and aerial view of Aachen Cathedral. For a larger interactive view, see our Aachen Map.</div></div> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br><br> <p> <strong>Aachen Cathedral</strong>, also referred to as the <em>Kaiserdom</em> (&quot;Imperial Cathedral&quot;) of Aachen, is a building of great historical, architectural and religious importance. Built by Charlemagne in 805 AD, its unique design was highly influential on German church architecture and it was a site of imperial coronations and pilgrimage for many centuries. </p> <p>Aachen Cathedral remains one of the oldest churches in Germany and contains a wealth of treasures from the early medieval period, including Charlemagne&#39;s Throne (c.800), a golden altarpiece (c.1000), a golden pulpit (c.1020), the golden shrine of Charlemagne (1215), and the shrine of the Virgin Mary (1238). The last contains an impressive collection of relics and still attracts pilgrims. Still more treasures are on display in the magnificent Cathedral Treasury.</p> History<p><strong>Charlemagne</strong> (<em>Karl der Grosse</em> in German), the first Holy Roman Emperor, began building his Palatine Chapel (palace chapel) in <strong>786 AD</strong>. The Palatine Chapel has been described as a &quot;masterpiece of Carolingian architecture&quot; and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. It is all that remains today of Charlemagne&#39;s extensive palace complex in Aachen.</p> <p> The Palatine Chapel was designed by Odo of Metz. He based it on the Byzantine church of San Vitale (completed 547 AD) in Ravenna, Italy. This accounts for the very eastern feel to the chapel, with its octagonal shape, striped arches, marble floor, golden mosaics, and ambulatory. It was consecrated in <strong>805</strong> to serve as the imperial church. </p> <p>Charlemagne collected a variety of <strong>relics</strong> during his lifetime, which are still kept in the Aachen Cathedral. The four most important are impressive indeed: </p> <ul><li>the cloak of the Blessed Virgin;</li><li>the swaddling-clothes of the Infant Jesus;</li><li>the loin-cloth worn by Christ on the Cross; and </li><li>the cloth on which lay the head of St. John the Baptist after his beheading. </li></ul> <p> In the Middle Ages, these relics attracted swarms of <strong>pilgrims</strong> from Germany, Austria, Hungary, England, Sweden, and other countries. In the mid-14th century, it became customary to show the four &quot;Great Relics&quot; only once every seven years, a custom which continues today (the next will be in 2007). </p> <p> When Charlemagne died in 814, he was buried in the chapel&#39;s choir. In 1000 AD, Emperor <strong>Otto III</strong> had Charlemagne&#39;s vault opened. It is said the body was found in a remarkable state of preservation, seated on a marble throne, dressed in imperial robes, with his crown on his head, the Gospels lying open in his lap, and his scepter in his hand. A large mural representing Otto and his nobles gazing on the dead Emperor was painted on the wall of the great room in the Town Hall. </p> <p> In 1165, Emperor <strong>Frederick Barbarossa</strong> again opened the vault and placed the remains in a sculptured sarcophagus made of Parian marble, said to have been the one in which Augustus Caesar was buried. At Barbarossa&#39;s request, Charlemagne was canonized that same year.</p> <p> In 1168, Barbarossa provided a bronze <strong>chandelier </strong>to hang over the shrine, which still remains today. In 1215, Frederick II had Charlemagne&#39;s bones put in a splendid <strong>golden shrine</strong>, which was originally placed beneath the chandelier in the middle of the Octagon. (Charlemagne received another honor 10 years later, when an entire window was devoted to him in Chartres Cathedral.)</p> <p>Charlemagne&#39;s remains were again disturbed around <strong>1349</strong>, when a revival of interest in relics, and especially those of Charlemagne, led to the creation of two separate reliquaries to display some of the bones. Charles IV commissioned the Reliquary of Charlemagne (with his thigh bone) and the Bust of Charlemagne (with his skull), which can both be seen in the Treasury. </p> <p>Also in the Treasury is the Arm Reliquary, which displays the ulna and radius bones of Charlemagne&#39;s right arm. This was commissioned by King Louis XI of France in <strong>1481</strong>. Since 1474, Charlemagne has been venerated as the progenitor of the French kings.</p> <p> In the meantime, the Palantine Chapel&#39;s choir hall was reconstructed in the Gothic style. The new <em>Capella vitrea</em> (Glass Chapel) was consecrated in <strong>1414</strong>, on the 600th anniversary of Charlemagne&#39;s death. The emperor&#39;s shrine was moved to the east end of the choir, where it remains today.</p> <p> Also in the 15th century, several smaller chapels and a vestibule were added to the Palatine Chapel to manage the increasing crowds of pilgrims, and the resulting enlarged building is what we know as <strong>Aachen Cathedral</strong>. </p> <p> Thankfully Aachen Cathedral suffered very little damage in the World Wars. In 1978 it was one of the first 12 sites to make the entry into the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. It was the first German site and one of the first three European sites to be admitted. Two decades of restoration work on the dome was completed in 2006.</p> What to See Exterior <p>The <strong>Westwork</strong> is of Carolingian origin, with the staircases and intervening niche surviving intact from this period. The porch dates almost entirely from the 17th century and the upper part of the west tower was added in 1879-84. Some Carolingian masonry survives in the lower part of the tower.</p> <p>The west portal features great bronze doors known as the &quot;<strong>Wolf&#39;s Doors</strong>,&quot; which were cast around 800 AD for the original Palatine Chapel. They were based on ancient models and weigh four tons. The modern entrance is through a smaller, more humble doorway to their right.</p> <p>Displayed in the entrance hall are two bronze sculptures: the <strong>she-wolf</strong>, dating from the 2nd century AD and brought to Aachen in Charlemagne&#39;s time; and a large <strong>pinecone</strong> dating from 1000 AD, which may have decorated a fountain.</p> The Palatine Chapel and Its Treasures <p>The <strong>Palatine Chapel</strong> is one of the most important surviving examples of Carolingian architecture anywhere. It is also known as the <strong>Octagon</strong> for its distinctive octagonal central area. </p> <p>The columns and bronze gates of the gallery are originals from the Carolingian era, but none of the original decoration survives. The fine <strong>marble floor</strong> is in a Cosmati style but dates from 1913.</p> <p>Hanging from the vault in the center of the Palatine Chapel is <strong>Barbarossa&#39;s Chandelier</strong>, a huge (4.2-meter diameter) bronze circlet commissioned by Frederick Barbarossa to celebrate Charlemagne&#39;s canonization. It was created in 1165-84 in Aachen and is inscribed with a dedication to Mary from Barbarossa and his wife Beatrix. On special holy days the candles are lit, which must be quite a spectacular sight.</p> <p>The chandelier&#39;s design represents the Heavenly Jerusalem as envisioned in Revelation, yet it has only eight towers (plus eight archways with smaller towers) instead of the twelve described in Revelation. Fortunately, the dedicatory inscription explains this - the deviation from the biblical description was intentional, so that the chandelier would fit perfectly into the eight-sided imperial chapel for which it was designed.</p> <p>The vault of the Octagon is adorned with <strong>golden mosaics</strong> executed by Salviati of Venice in 1882, which show Christ surrounded by the 24 Ancients of the Apocalypse. The Octagon is crowned by a <strong>cupola</strong> that rises to about 31 meters (102 feet) above the pavement. For centuries it was the highest vaulted interior in northern Europe. </p> <p>Standing to the right of the altar in the Octagon is the 14th-century statue of <strong>Our Lady of Aachen</strong>, holding a rather mischievous-looking Christ Child. She represents the patron saint of the cathedral and has been said to work miracles. Since the 17th century it has been customary to give her dresses and jewellery.</p> <p>In the upper gallery, visitors can view the <strong>marble throne</strong> on which 32 Holy Roman Emperors were coronated between 936 and 1531. The throne dates to Carolingian times and was likely used by Charlemagne himself, though not for his coronation, which took place in Rome. The throne is very simple, consisting of four ancient marble slabs held together by bronze clamps. Its six marble steps, partly carved from an ancient column, allude to Solomon&#39;s throne.</p> <p>The fine <strong>columns</strong> of the gallery are purely decorative, not bearing any weight of the arches. Charlemagne had 32 of them shipped from the ancient buildings of Rome and Ravenna. Most of them were looted in the French Revolution but 22 have since been returned and restored to their place in the gallery. The <strong>bronze grilles</strong> between the pillars were cast in Aachen in the time of Charlemagne. They have elaborate patterns that indicate Roman, Celtic and Frankish influences, and are matched in pairs across from each other.</p> The Gothic Choir and Its Treasures <p>Beyond the altar is the Gothic choir or <em>Capella vitrea</em> (<strong>Glass Chapel</strong>) of 1414, a spectacular sight. The walls are filled with 13 colorful windows that rise 100 feet high. The original windows were badly damaged by fires and finished off by the bombing raids of World War II; the present glass dates from the 1950s.</p> <p>The main altar, which faces the Octagon, is decorated with a magnificent golden frontal known as the <strong>Pala d&#39;Oro</strong>. It dates from about 1000 AD and was a gift of either Otto III or Heinrich II. The golden panels are held together with a wooden frame and may be out of their original order. </p> <p>The Pala d&#39;Oro centers on a beardless Christ enthroned inside a mandorla (almond-shaped nimbus), who gives a blessing and holds a cross with one hand and holds a book in the other. He is flanked by figures of the Virgin Mary and St. Michael and four small medallions depicting the symbols of the Four Evangelists. The ten other panels depict scenes from the Passion, starting with the Triumphal Entry at top left and ending with the Empty Tomb on the bottom right.</p> <p>Nearby, on the right side of the choir, is another glimmering treasure: the magnificent <strong>Golden Pulpit</strong>. It dates from about 1020 and was commissioned by Emperor Heinrich II. It is covered in gold and studded with jewels and precious objects, including ancient glass bowls! The dishes are not the only unusual decorations: there are also six sensuous pagan ivory reliefs from Egypt, dating from the 6th century AD.</p> <p>There are <strong>two golden shrines</strong> elevated inside glass boxes in the Gothic choir. The one closest to the Octagon is the Shrine fo the Virgin Mary or Marian Shrine (1238); the one in the back is the Shrine of Charlemagne (1215).</p> <p>The <strong>Shrine of the Virgin Mary</strong> was completed in 1238 and contains the Four Great Relics of Aachen listed above. The end gables have figures of Christ and Pope Leo III; the gables on the long sides depict the Madonna and Child (front side) and Charlemagne. The Twelve Apostles populate the rest of the long sides. The panels on the &quot;roof&quot; depict scenes from the life of Mary in low relief.</p> <p>The <strong>Shrine of Charlemagne</strong> was made in Aachen in 1215 and still houses the emperor&#39;s remains (except for the bits kept in reliquaries in the Treasury). On the front gable Charlemagne is shown enthroned between Pope Leo III and Archbishop Turpin of Reims, a member of the imperial court. Above them Jesus emerges from a roundel to bless the emperor.</p> <p>The long sides of the shrine depict 16 rulers who were in power between Charlemagne and Friedrich II and the other gable has the Virgin Mary flanked by the archangels Gabriel and Michael. Above them are the personified virtues of Faith, Charity and Hope. The &quot;roof&quot; reliefs depict scenes from Charlemagne&#39;s life, especially his struggle against the Moors. One shows him presenting his Palatine Chapel to the Virgin Mary.</p> <p>Another imperial tomb is also here - the <strong>grave of Emperor Otto III</strong> (d.1002) is under the floor in the center of the choir. It is marked with a simple inscribed slab. Hanging from the vault above is a large, double-sided <strong>sculpture</strong> made in 1524 by Jan van Steffesweert of Maastricht. It depicts the Madonna and Child attended by cherubs inside a radiant corona.</p> <p>On the pillars between the stained glass windows stand <strong>14 statues</strong> completed by 1420: the Virgin Mary, the Twelve Apostles, and Charlemagne. The vault above has <strong>roof bosses</strong> carved with figures, including the Resurrected Christ directly over Charlemagne&#39;s shrine. <strong>Murals</strong> (1880-1913) of biblical scenes and saints line the walls of the choir. </p> Quick Facts <div style="font-size: 11px"> <strong>Site Information</strong> Names: Aachen Cathedral; Pfalzkapelle; Kaiserdom; Aachener Dom; Palatine Chapel; Palace Chapel; Collegiate Church; Octagon Location:Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia, GermanyFaith:ChristianityDenomination:Catholic Category: Cathedrals; World Heritage Sites Architecture: Carolingian, Gothic Date:786-805; choir added 1414Patron(s):CharlemagneFeatures:Relics; Romanesque SculptureStatus:activePhoto gallery:Aachen Cathedral Photo Gallery (for viewing)Stock photos:Aachen Cathedral Stock Photos (for licensing) <strong>Visitor Information</strong> Address:Klosterplatz 2, 52062 Aachen, GermanyCoordinates: 50.774612&deg; N, 6.084114&deg; E &nbsp;&nbsp;(view on Google Maps) Lodging:View hotels near this locationPhone:0241 47 70 90Website:www.aachendom.deE-mail:info@aachendom.deOpening hours:Apr-Oct: 7am-7pm <br> Nov-Mar: 7am-6pmCost:Free (&euro;2 fee for photography)Services:Mon-Fri: 7am, 10am<br> Sat: 7am, 8am, 10am<br> Sun: 7am, 8am, 10am (with choir); 11:30amFacilities:Toilets on the courtyard by the west entrance (on your left as you face the cathedral); &euro;0.30; or in the Treasury <br> <div style="color: #333333; font-size: 11px"><em>Note: This information was accurate when published and we do our best to keep it updated, but details such as opening hours can change without notice. To avoid disappointment, please check with the site directly before making a special trip.</em> </div> </div> Travel Resources <ul><li>Aachen Map - our detailed interactive map of Aachen, plus hand-picked links to more</li><li>Aachen Hotels - check availability, maps, photos and reviews, and book at the guaranteed lowest price</li><li>Aachen Restaurant Reviews - the best places to eat in town</li></ul> Article Sources <p>Article written by Holly Hayes with reference to the following sources:</p><ol><li>&nbsp;<ol><li>Personal visits (December 2005 and January 8, 2008).</li><li>&quot;Cathedral of Aachen&quot; - handout accompanying guided tour</li><li>Alfred Carl, <em>Aachen and Its Cathedral </em>(2005) - available in Treasury gift shop</li><li>Aachener Dom - official website</li><li>Aachener Dom - German Wikipedia</li><li>Palatine Chapel - <em>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</em> </li><li>Aachen - <em>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</em></li><li>Aachen - <em>Catholic Encyclopedia</em></li></ol><ul><li>Aachen - TripAdvisor reviews </li><li>Aachen Cathedral - UNESCO World Heritage List </li><li>Richard E. Sullivan, <em>Aix-La-Chapelle in the Age of Charlemagne</em> (1975).</li><li>Charles Whiting, <em>Bloody Aachen</em> (UK edition, 2000). </li><li>Alessandro Barbero, <em>Charlemagne: Father of a Continent</em> (2004).</li><li>Holy Skepticism: Christian Relics Face a Modern Audience - Deutsche Welle, June 2, 2007 </li></ul></li> More Information<p><br>Last updated on July 30, 2010.</p><br><br><br><br></ol></div> <br> <div> <p>Sacred Destinations Home&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;About&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Contact&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Using Images&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Advertise&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Blog&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Twitter&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Privacy Policy<br> Stock photos of religious art and architecture available for licensing: Sacred Destinations Images <br> Except where indicated otherwise, all content and images &copy; 2005-10 Sacred Destinations.&nbsp;All rights reserved. <br><br> Sacred Destinations is an online travel guide to <strong>sacred sites</strong>, pilgrimages, holy places, religious history, sacred places, historical religious sites, archaeological sites, <br> religious festivals, sacred sites, spiritual retreats, religious travel and spiritual journeys. <br> Free content for your Google homepage or website! Get the Sacred Destinations Daily Photo Gadget <br> <br> Travel resources: Spiritual Tour Directory, Sightseeing Tours, Hotels, Travel Insurance, Timeshare Resales<br> Popular categories: Ancient Mysteries, Biblical Sites, Cathedrals, Catholic Shrines, Footsteps of Jesus, Luther Sites<br> Popular sacred sites: Easter Island, Lourdes, Notre-Dame Cathedral, Oberammergau Passion Play, Shroud of Turin 2010, Sistine Chapel, St. Mark&#39;s Basilica, St. Peter&#39;s Basilica, Stonehenge<br> Popular city guides: Rome, Ravenna, Ephesus, Assisi, Paris, Jerusalem<br> Popular maps: England Map, Italy Map, Jerusalem Map, London Map, Paris Map, Rome Map </p> </div> </div> &lt;img src=&quot;http://www.assoc-amazon.com/s/noscript?tag=sacreddestina-20&quot;&gt;

  • Story: Legacy Sword Joyeuse

    <br> <div> <span> &nbsp;About&nbsp;&nbsp;Links&nbsp;&nbsp;Search&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Contribute</strong>&nbsp;<br> </span> <br> <span> &nbsp;Features&nbsp;&nbsp;Reviews&nbsp;&nbsp;Collections&nbsp;&nbsp;Albums&nbsp;&nbsp;Forums&nbsp;&nbsp;Books&nbsp;<br><br> </span> </div> &nbsp;<br> <div> <div> <span> Favorites Register Log in </span> </div> </div> <br> <div><span> <span>The Sword of Charlemagne</span><br> An article by Bj&ouml;rn Hellqvist<br><br> One of the most well-known swords in the world is the traditional coronation sword of France, once attributed to the great Emperor Charlemagne. It is kept in the Louvre Museum, the famous museum of art in Paris, France. To this day, it is unclear whether the sword is Charlemagne&#39;s sword &quot;Joyeuse&quot; or if it is of a later date. It is shrouded in mystery, but before moving on to the sword itself, I&#39;ll try to sketch an outline on who Charlemagne was and why a sword attributed to him is so special.<br><br> <span>Charlemagne&mdash;The Legendary Emperor</span><br> <br> <span>Charlemagne<br><br></span> Charlemagne&mdash;or Charles the Great&mdash;is one of the most important figures in European history. He was king of the Franks, a people living in what is known as France today. He was born in 742 AD, the son of the Frankish king Pepin the Short. He inherited the crown together with his brother Carloman in 768, but when Carloman passed away in 771, Charles became the sole ruler. One of the things he inherited was the obligation to protect the temporal rights of the Holy See. He was soon embroiled in wars with Lombard enemies of the Pope and with the pagan Saxons in Germany. His successes in defeating the Lombards and Saxons made the Pope declare Charles the first champion of the Catholic Church in 774. The next 20 years were full of warfare against Saxons, Lombard insurgents and the Moors of Spain. In the latter conflict, there was a Frankish campaign against the Moors in 778, where the legendary battle in the Pass of Roncevalles took place. In this battle, Charles&#39; paladin Roland fell, breaking his sword &quot;Durandal&quot; and entered legend in the &quot;Song of Roland&quot;. The following year, Charles attacked the Saxons again, ending in the baptism of the Saxon leader in 785. After that, Charles&#39; life was relatively quiet, interrupted only by the odd revolt and Viking raid. His defense of the Pope and Western Christendom was recognized in 800 AD, when the Pope crowned him Emperor of the Western Empire. Apart from his military prowess, he was also a superb emperor, bringing order to a tumultuous time and setting an example for future kings. Agriculture, trade and law flourished. He died in 814, a few months before his 72nd birthday. The empire soon split into several kingdoms, but the work of Charles the Great had left an indelible legacy.<br><br> <span>A Most Enigmatic Sword</span><br> <br> <span>The Authentic<br>&quot;Sword of Charlemagne&quot;<br><br></span> Today, there are two swords attributed to Charlemagne. One, a saber, is kept in the Weltliche Schatzkammer (Imperial Treasury) in Vienna, Austria, while the sword covered in this article is kept in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France (catalog number MS 84). The sword was originally kept in the monastery in Saint-Denis, where the other regalia and the Oriflamme, the battle standard of France, were kept. The monks (and other people) believed that the regalia had belonged to Charles the Great, but modern research has arrived at a later date for all pieces, though others dispute this. The decorative elements, proportions and purported age don&#39;t really correspond. The Sword of Charlemagne has no known counterpart and presents antiquarians with a problem: when was it made?<br><br> There are two main schools. One thinks that the sword is basically that which was carried by Charlemagne. Their main argument is that the ornamentation of the hilt, which is not typical of later swords, indicates an early date of manufacture. The other school thinks that the proportions are that of a later weapon and that it is unlikely that the original sword has survived for 1200 years. The antiquarian Sir Martin Conway believed the sword to be made up of parts, some of them from around 800 AD, while Sir Guy Laking put the age at a much later date, the early 13th century. One French antiquarian, a M. Dieulafoy, saw similarities between Sassanidian decorative styles and the decoration of the pommel, thinking that a western craftsman imitated the style for some obscure reason. As the style in question would be of the mid-7th century, it would explain the unusual pommel and also provide evidence for the age of the sword. Laking, on his side, argued that the general proportions of the sword put it at a date of manufacture no earlier than 1150 AD, and that similar ornamental styles can be encountered in European art of that period. Laking speculates that the sword might have replaced the original &quot;Joyeuse&quot; in the 13th century, being made as a copy of the original, which might account for the seeming anachronisms. The late sword expert Ewart Oakeshott, on the other hand, tends to side with those who set an earlier date for the sword, arguing that the proportions aren&#39;t that unlikely for an earlier sword and that the decorative style is alien for the years around 1200 AD. Alterations made through the centuries have further clouded the issue. The Louvre Museum official Web site lists the following ages of the different parts: pommel 10th-11th centuries, cross second half of the 12th century and grip 13th century. There&#39;s no date for the blade.<br><br> The earliest known instance when the sword was used at the coronation of a French king was when Philip the Bold was crowned in 1270. The ceremony was usually held in Reims cathedral, with the regalia kept in the nearby monastery in Saint-Denis. The first mention of the sword being kept in the monastery was in an inventory made in 1505. The sword is listed together with three other swords, none of which survives to this day. They were (reportedly) the sword of Louis IX, carried on his first crusade, the sword of Charles VII and a sword associated with Archbishop Turpin. The sword was taken to the Louvre Museum on December 5, 1793.<br><br> <span>The Hilt</span><br> <br> <span>Del Tin 2120 Replica<br>&quot;Sword of Charlemagne&quot;<br></span> The heavily sculpted gold pommel is made in two halves, resembling a bulky Oakeshott type B, 2.1&quot; (53mm) high. The 4.2&quot; (107mm) long gold grip was decorated with fleurs-de-lis inside the diamond patterning, but those were removed for the coronation of Napoleon I in 1804. The gold cross is an Oakeshott style 1, 8.9&quot; wide (226mm), and in the shape of two winged dragons with lapis azuli beads for eyes. The cross was stamped in the 13th century with the weight of the gold in the hilt, the text reading as follows: <em>Deux marcs et demi et dix esterlins</em> (&quot;two marks and half and ten sterlings&quot;).<br><br> <span>The Blade</span><br> The blade is a rather slender Oakeshott type XII. It has a relatively wide, shallow fuller. The blade is 32.6&quot; (828mm) long and 1.77&quot; (45mm) wide at the base. There are differing views on the age of the blade, one school thinking it was forged when the sword got an overhaul in 1804, the other (and in my view probably correct) thinking it is medieval.<br><br> <span>The Scabbard</span><br> As with other coronation swords, there&#39;s a scabbard. It has been changed, and I doubt there&#39;s anything left of the original except for the precious stones on the scabbard throat and the belt. It is made of gilded silver, the 6&quot; (155mm) throat decorated along its length with gems, while the rest is covered with purple velvet and decorated with fleurs-de-lis embroidered with gold thread. The velvet and fleurs-de-lis were added in 1824 for the coronation of Charles X. The scabbard is 33&quot; (838mm) long and 2.75&quot; (70mm) wide at the throat. A piece of the belt is still in place, fitted with a gilded buckle in a decidedly medieval style.<br><br> <span>The Replicas</span><br> The Sword of Charlemagne is probably among the most reproduced of any historical sword. The majority are made just for decorative purposes, with stainless steel blades and weak hilts. The replicas from Marto are the best in the decorative category, considering the crisply cast hilt, but short on functionality. The etched coats-of-arms on the blade have no counterpart on the original. Denix makes a cheap, decent wallhanger, which comes with a scabbard which bears no resemblance to the original. The only functional quality reproduction of the sword is the Del Tin Armi Antiche 2120.<br><br> <span>Del Tin&#39;s &quot;Sword of Charlemagne&quot; (DT2120)</span><br> This is a good replica of the sword, even though the cast parts of the hilt aren&#39;t as crisp as the original&#39;s. The pommel is riveted in place, just like the medieval counterpart. It is rather heavy for a one-hander, but handles pretty well if you like swords with a punch. The Point of Balance is around 5.1&quot; (130mm) in front of the cross, but the weight makes it a second to swords like the Del Tin Armi Antiche 2130.<br> <br> <em>Measurements and Specifications:</em><br> <span>Weight:</span><span>3.59 pounds (1630g)</span> <span>Overall length:</span><span>38.54&quot; (980mm)</span> <span>Blade length:</span><span>32.48&quot; (825mm)</span> <span>Blade width:</span><span>2&quot; (51mm)</span> <span>Width of cross:</span><span>9.25&quot; (235mm)</span> <br> <div><br> &nbsp;Return to the index of features &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Talk about this article on the discussion forums </div> <br><br><br><br> <span> <strong>About the Author</strong><br> Bj&ouml;rn Hellqvist is a Swedish optometrist with an interest in historical European swords.<br><br> <strong>Author&#39;s Thanks</strong><br> I would like to thank David Counts for his help with Laking&#39;s text, as well as Ann Snow, Patrick Kelly and Fulvio Del Tin of Del Tin Armi Antiche for providing valuable information and comments during the writing of this article. Thanks to Paul Kilmartin for the proofreading.<br><br> <strong>Sources and Bibliography</strong><br> Conway, Sir W. Martin: <em>The Abbey of Saint-Denis and its Ancient Treasures</em>, Archaeologica, 1915<br> Cope, Anne (editor): <em>Swords and Hilt Weapons</em>, Multimedia Books, London 1989<br> Edge, David and Paddock, John M.: <em>Arms &amp; Armor of the Medieval Knight</em>, Bison Books, Greenwich 1988<br> Laking, Sir Guy Francis: <em>A Record of European Armour and Arms Through Seven Centuries</em>, G. Bell and Sons Ltd., London 1920<br> Oakeshott, Ewart: <em>The Sword in the Age of Chivalry</em>, Boydell &amp; Brewer, Woodbridge 1964, 1994<br><br> Another photo of the original sword can be seen at the Louvre Museum Web site.<br><br> <strong>Acknowledgements</strong><br> Photograph of the original sword provided by Alex Huangfu and Manoucher M.<br> Photographs of the replica sword provided by <em>Del Tin Armi Antiche</em><br> </span> </span></div> <div> &nbsp; </div> <div> <br><br><br><br> <span> <br> </span> </div> <br><br><br><br> <div><span> <br>All contents &copy; Copyright 2003-2010 myArmoury.com &mdash; All rights reserved<br><br> Open a printer-friendly version of this page<br><br> <span>You must be logged in to access all the features of myArmoury.com.</span><span>Your name:&nbsp;</span><span>I forgot my password<br>Register for an account</span><span>Password:&nbsp;</span><span> Log me on automatically each visit</span> <span>Why register? 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