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Charlemagn,q 'The Great', King of the Franks, Holy Roman Emperor

742-814
Born: Aachen, Rhineland or Ingelheim, Rheinhessen, Hesse, Darmstadt, Hessen, Germany
Died: Aachen, Rhineland or Aix La Chapelle, Aachen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany or Prussia

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  • Story: Charlemagne

    <span style="font-family: '-webkit-sans-serif'; font-size: 19px; line-height: 19px"><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-family: verdana; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal"><span style="font-size: medium">Date&nbsp;and&nbsp;place&nbsp;of&nbsp;birth</span></span><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal"><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&nbsp;is&nbsp;believed&nbsp;to&nbsp;have&nbsp;been&nbsp;born&nbsp;in&nbsp;742;&nbsp;however,&nbsp;several&nbsp;factors&nbsp;have&nbsp;led&nbsp;to&nbsp;a&nbsp;reconsideration&nbsp;of&nbsp;this&nbsp;date.&nbsp;First,&nbsp;the&nbsp;year&nbsp;742&nbsp;was&nbsp;calculated&nbsp;from&nbsp;his&nbsp;age&nbsp;given&nbsp;at&nbsp;death,&nbsp;rather&nbsp;than&nbsp;from&nbsp;attestation&nbsp;in&nbsp;primary&nbsp;sources.&nbsp;Another&nbsp;date&nbsp;is&nbsp;given&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Annales&nbsp;Petaviani,&nbsp;that&nbsp;of&nbsp;2&nbsp;April&nbsp;747.[3].&nbsp;In&nbsp;that&nbsp;year,&nbsp;April&nbsp;2&nbsp;was&nbsp;at&nbsp;Easter.&nbsp;The&nbsp;birth&nbsp;of&nbsp;an&nbsp;emperor&nbsp;at&nbsp;eastertime&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;coincidence&nbsp;likely&nbsp;to&nbsp;provoke&nbsp;comment,&nbsp;but&nbsp;there&nbsp;was&nbsp;no&nbsp;such&nbsp;comment&nbsp;documented&nbsp;in&nbsp;747,&nbsp;leading&nbsp;some&nbsp;to&nbsp;suspect&nbsp;that&nbsp;the&nbsp;Easter&nbsp;birthday&nbsp;was&nbsp;a&nbsp;pious&nbsp;fiction&nbsp;concocted&nbsp;as&nbsp;a&nbsp;way&nbsp;of&nbsp;honoring&nbsp;the&nbsp;Emperor.&nbsp;Other&nbsp;commentators&nbsp;weighing&nbsp;the&nbsp;primary&nbsp;records&nbsp;have&nbsp;suggested&nbsp;that&nbsp;his&nbsp;birth&nbsp;was&nbsp;one&nbsp;year&nbsp;later,&nbsp;in&nbsp;748.&nbsp;At&nbsp;present,&nbsp;it&nbsp;is&nbsp;impossible&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;certain&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;date&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;birth&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne.&nbsp;The&nbsp;best&nbsp;guesses&nbsp;include&nbsp;April&nbsp;1,&nbsp;747,&nbsp;after&nbsp;April&nbsp;15,&nbsp;747,&nbsp;or&nbsp;April&nbsp;1,&nbsp;748,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Herstal&nbsp;(where&nbsp;his&nbsp;father&nbsp;was&nbsp;born,&nbsp;a&nbsp;town&nbsp;close&nbsp;to&nbsp;Li&egrave;ge&nbsp;in&nbsp;modern&nbsp;day&nbsp;Belgium),&nbsp;the&nbsp;region&nbsp;from&nbsp;where&nbsp;both&nbsp;the&nbsp;Merovingian&nbsp;and&nbsp;Carolingian&nbsp;families&nbsp;originate.&nbsp;He&nbsp;went&nbsp;to&nbsp;live&nbsp;in&nbsp;his&nbsp;father&#39;s&nbsp;villa&nbsp;in&nbsp;Jupille&nbsp;when&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;around&nbsp;seven,&nbsp;which&nbsp;caused&nbsp;Jupille&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;listed&nbsp;as&nbsp;a&nbsp;possible&nbsp;place&nbsp;of&nbsp;birth&nbsp;in&nbsp;almost&nbsp;every&nbsp;history&nbsp;book.&nbsp;Other&nbsp;cities&nbsp;have&nbsp;been&nbsp;suggested,&nbsp;including,&nbsp;Pr&uuml;m,&nbsp;D&uuml;ren,&nbsp;Gauting&nbsp;andAachen.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&nbsp;(left)&nbsp;and&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;the&nbsp;Hunchback.&nbsp;Tenth-century&nbsp;copy&nbsp;of&nbsp;a&nbsp;lost&nbsp;original&nbsp;from&nbsp;about&nbsp;830.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Dubbed&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;le&nbsp;Magne&nbsp;&quot;Charles&nbsp;the&nbsp;Great&quot;,&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;named&nbsp;after&nbsp;his&nbsp;grandfather,&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;Martel.&nbsp;The&nbsp;name&nbsp;derives&nbsp;from&nbsp;Germanic&nbsp;*karlaz&nbsp;&quot;free&nbsp;man,&nbsp;commoner&quot;,[4]&nbsp;which&nbsp;gave&nbsp;German&nbsp;Kerl&nbsp;&quot;man,&nbsp;guy&quot;&nbsp;and&nbsp;English&nbsp;churl.&nbsp;His&nbsp;name,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;is&nbsp;first&nbsp;attested&nbsp;in&nbsp;its&nbsp;Latin&nbsp;form,&nbsp;&quot;Carolus&quot;&nbsp;or&nbsp;&quot;Karolus.&quot;<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;many&nbsp;eastern&nbsp;European&nbsp;languages,&nbsp;the&nbsp;very&nbsp;word&nbsp;for&nbsp;&quot;king&quot;&nbsp;derives&nbsp;from&nbsp;Charles&#39;&nbsp;name.&nbsp;(e.g.,&nbsp;Polish:&nbsp;kr&oacute;l,&nbsp;Lithuanian:&nbsp;karalius,&nbsp;Hungarian:&nbsp;kir&aacute;ly,&nbsp;Serbian:&nbsp;kralj,&nbsp;Russian:&nbsp;король)<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Language<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;native&nbsp;language&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;matter&nbsp;of&nbsp;controversy.&nbsp;It&nbsp;was&nbsp;probably&nbsp;a&nbsp;Germanic&nbsp;dialect&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Ripuarian&nbsp;Franks,&nbsp;but&nbsp;linguists&nbsp;differ&nbsp;on&nbsp;its&nbsp;identity&nbsp;and&nbsp;chronology.&nbsp;Some&nbsp;linguists&nbsp;go&nbsp;so&nbsp;far&nbsp;as&nbsp;to&nbsp;say&nbsp;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;did&nbsp;not&nbsp;speak&nbsp;Old&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;as&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;born&nbsp;in&nbsp;742&nbsp;or&nbsp;747,&nbsp;by&nbsp;which&nbsp;time&nbsp;Old&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;had&nbsp;become&nbsp;extinct.&nbsp;Old&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;is&nbsp;reconstructed&nbsp;from&nbsp;its&nbsp;descendant,&nbsp;Old&nbsp;Low&nbsp;Franconian,&nbsp;and&nbsp;from&nbsp;loanwords&nbsp;in&nbsp;Old&nbsp;French.&nbsp;Linguists&nbsp;know&nbsp;very&nbsp;little&nbsp;about&nbsp;Old&nbsp;Frankish,&nbsp;as&nbsp;it&nbsp;is&nbsp;attested&nbsp;mainly&nbsp;as&nbsp;phrases&nbsp;and&nbsp;words&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;law&nbsp;codes&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;main&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;tribes&nbsp;(especially&nbsp;those&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Salian&nbsp;and&nbsp;Ripuarian&nbsp;Franks),&nbsp;which&nbsp;are&nbsp;written&nbsp;in&nbsp;Latin&nbsp;interspersed&nbsp;with&nbsp;Germanic&nbsp;elements.[5]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;area&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;birth&nbsp;does&nbsp;not&nbsp;make&nbsp;determination&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;native&nbsp;language&nbsp;easier.&nbsp;Most&nbsp;historians&nbsp;agree&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;born&nbsp;around&nbsp;Li&egrave;ge,&nbsp;like&nbsp;his&nbsp;father,&nbsp;but&nbsp;some&nbsp;say&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;born&nbsp;in&nbsp;or&nbsp;around&nbsp;Aachen,&nbsp;some&nbsp;50&nbsp;km&nbsp;away.&nbsp;At&nbsp;that&nbsp;time,&nbsp;this&nbsp;was&nbsp;an&nbsp;area&nbsp;of&nbsp;great&nbsp;linguistic&nbsp;diversity.&nbsp;If&nbsp;we&nbsp;take&nbsp;Li&egrave;ge&nbsp;(around&nbsp;750)&nbsp;as&nbsp;the&nbsp;centre,&nbsp;we&nbsp;find:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Old&nbsp;East&nbsp;Low&nbsp;Franconian&nbsp;(the&nbsp;forerunner&nbsp;of&nbsp;Limburgish)&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;city,&nbsp;north&nbsp;and&nbsp;northwest;<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">the&nbsp;closely&nbsp;related&nbsp;Old&nbsp;Ripuarian&nbsp;Franconian&nbsp;(a&nbsp;central&nbsp;Old&nbsp;High&nbsp;German&nbsp;dialect)&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;east&nbsp;and&nbsp;in&nbsp;Aachen;&nbsp;and<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Gallo-Romance&nbsp;(the&nbsp;ancestor&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Walloon&nbsp;dialect&nbsp;of&nbsp;Old&nbsp;French)&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;south&nbsp;and&nbsp;southwest.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;names&nbsp;he&nbsp;gave&nbsp;his&nbsp;children&nbsp;are&nbsp;also&nbsp;good&nbsp;indicators&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;language&nbsp;he&nbsp;spoke,&nbsp;as&nbsp;all&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;daughters&nbsp;received&nbsp;Old&nbsp;High&nbsp;German&nbsp;names.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Apart&nbsp;from&nbsp;his&nbsp;native&nbsp;language&nbsp;he&nbsp;also&nbsp;spoke&nbsp;Latin&nbsp;&quot;as&nbsp;fluently&nbsp;as&nbsp;his&nbsp;own&nbsp;tongue&quot;&nbsp;and&nbsp;understood&nbsp;a&nbsp;bit&nbsp;of&nbsp;Greek:&nbsp;Grecam&nbsp;vero&nbsp;melius&nbsp;intellegere&nbsp;quam&nbsp;pronuntiare&nbsp;poterat,&nbsp;&quot;He&nbsp;understood&nbsp;Greek&nbsp;better&nbsp;than&nbsp;he&nbsp;could&nbsp;pronounce&nbsp;it.&quot;[6]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Personal&nbsp;appearance<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Though&nbsp;no&nbsp;description&nbsp;from&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;lifetime&nbsp;exists,&nbsp;his&nbsp;personal&nbsp;appearance&nbsp;is&nbsp;known&nbsp;from&nbsp;a&nbsp;good&nbsp;description&nbsp;by&nbsp;Einhard,&nbsp;author&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;biographical&nbsp;Vita&nbsp;Karoli&nbsp;Magni.&nbsp;Einhard&nbsp;tells&nbsp;in&nbsp;his&nbsp;twenty-second&nbsp;chapter:[7]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;was&nbsp;heavily&nbsp;built,&nbsp;sturdy,&nbsp;and&nbsp;of&nbsp;considerable&nbsp;stature,&nbsp;although&nbsp;not&nbsp;exceptionally&nbsp;so,&nbsp;given&nbsp;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;stood&nbsp;seven&nbsp;feet&nbsp;tall.&nbsp;He&nbsp;had&nbsp;a&nbsp;round&nbsp;head,&nbsp;large&nbsp;and&nbsp;lively&nbsp;eyes,&nbsp;a&nbsp;slightly&nbsp;larger&nbsp;nose&nbsp;than&nbsp;usual,&nbsp;white&nbsp;but&nbsp;still&nbsp;attractive&nbsp;hair,&nbsp;a&nbsp;bright&nbsp;and&nbsp;cheerful&nbsp;expression,&nbsp;a&nbsp;short&nbsp;and&nbsp;fat&nbsp;neck,&nbsp;and&nbsp;a&nbsp;slightly&nbsp;protruding&nbsp;stomach.&nbsp;His&nbsp;voice&nbsp;was&nbsp;clear,&nbsp;but&nbsp;a&nbsp;little&nbsp;higher&nbsp;than&nbsp;one&nbsp;would&nbsp;have&nbsp;expected&nbsp;for&nbsp;a&nbsp;man&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;build.&nbsp;He&nbsp;enjoyed&nbsp;good&nbsp;health,&nbsp;except&nbsp;for&nbsp;the&nbsp;fevers&nbsp;that&nbsp;affected&nbsp;him&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;last&nbsp;few&nbsp;years&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;life.&nbsp;Toward&nbsp;the&nbsp;end&nbsp;he&nbsp;dragged&nbsp;one&nbsp;leg.&nbsp;Even&nbsp;then,&nbsp;he&nbsp;stubbornly&nbsp;did&nbsp;what&nbsp;he&nbsp;wanted&nbsp;and&nbsp;refused&nbsp;to&nbsp;listen&nbsp;to&nbsp;doctors,&nbsp;indeed&nbsp;he&nbsp;detested&nbsp;them,&nbsp;because&nbsp;they&nbsp;wanted&nbsp;to&nbsp;persuade&nbsp;him&nbsp;to&nbsp;stop&nbsp;eating&nbsp;roast&nbsp;meat,&nbsp;as&nbsp;was&nbsp;his&nbsp;wont,&nbsp;and&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;content&nbsp;with&nbsp;boiled&nbsp;meat.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;physical&nbsp;portrait&nbsp;provided&nbsp;by&nbsp;Einhard&nbsp;is&nbsp;confirmed&nbsp;by&nbsp;contemporary&nbsp;depictions&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;emperor,&nbsp;such&nbsp;as&nbsp;coins&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;8-inch&nbsp;bronze&nbsp;statue&nbsp;kept&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Louvre.&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;description&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;height&nbsp;at&nbsp;7&nbsp;feet&nbsp;(6&nbsp;feet&nbsp;3&nbsp;inches,&nbsp;or&nbsp;190.50&nbsp;centimeters)&nbsp;was&nbsp;not&nbsp;far&nbsp;off.&nbsp;Though&nbsp;it&nbsp;was&nbsp;Herculean&nbsp;stature,&nbsp;particularly&nbsp;in&nbsp;a&nbsp;period&nbsp;in&nbsp;which&nbsp;people&nbsp;were&nbsp;a&nbsp;little&nbsp;shorter&nbsp;than&nbsp;we&nbsp;are&nbsp;today,&nbsp;archaeology&nbsp;has&nbsp;confirmed&nbsp;his&nbsp;tallness:&nbsp;in&nbsp;1861,&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;tomb&nbsp;was&nbsp;opened&nbsp;by&nbsp;scientists&nbsp;who&nbsp;reconstructed&nbsp;his&nbsp;skeleton&nbsp;and&nbsp;found&nbsp;that&nbsp;it&nbsp;indeed&nbsp;measured&nbsp;74.9&nbsp;inches&nbsp;(192&nbsp;centimeters).&nbsp;[8]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charles&nbsp;is&nbsp;well&nbsp;known&nbsp;to&nbsp;have&nbsp;been&nbsp;fair-haired,&nbsp;tall,&nbsp;and&nbsp;stately,&nbsp;with&nbsp;a&nbsp;disproportionately&nbsp;thick&nbsp;neck.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Roman&nbsp;tradition&nbsp;of&nbsp;realistic&nbsp;personal&nbsp;portraiture&nbsp;was&nbsp;in&nbsp;complete&nbsp;eclipse&nbsp;in&nbsp;his&nbsp;time,&nbsp;where&nbsp;individual&nbsp;traits&nbsp;were&nbsp;submerged&nbsp;in&nbsp;iconic&nbsp;typecastings.&nbsp;Charlemagne,&nbsp;as&nbsp;an&nbsp;ideal&nbsp;ruler,&nbsp;ought&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;portrayed&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;corresponding&nbsp;fashion,&nbsp;any&nbsp;contemporary&nbsp;would&nbsp;have&nbsp;assumed.&nbsp;The&nbsp;images&nbsp;of&nbsp;enthroned&nbsp;Charlemagne,&nbsp;God&#39;s&nbsp;representative&nbsp;on&nbsp;Earth,&nbsp;bear&nbsp;more&nbsp;connections&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;icons&nbsp;of&nbsp;Christ&nbsp;in&nbsp;majesty&nbsp;than&nbsp;to&nbsp;modern&nbsp;(or&nbsp;antique)&nbsp;conceptions&nbsp;of&nbsp;portraiture.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;in&nbsp;later&nbsp;imagery&nbsp;(as&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;D&uuml;rer&nbsp;portrait)&nbsp;is&nbsp;often&nbsp;portrayed&nbsp;with&nbsp;flowing&nbsp;blond&nbsp;hair,&nbsp;due&nbsp;to&nbsp;a&nbsp;misunderstanding&nbsp;of&nbsp;Einhard,&nbsp;who&nbsp;describes&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;as&nbsp;having&nbsp;canitie&nbsp;pulchra,&nbsp;or&nbsp;&quot;beautiful&nbsp;white&nbsp;hair&quot;,&nbsp;which&nbsp;has&nbsp;been&nbsp;rendered&nbsp;as&nbsp;blonde&nbsp;or&nbsp;fair&nbsp;in&nbsp;many&nbsp;translations.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Dress<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Part&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;treasure&nbsp;in&nbsp;Aachen<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&nbsp;wore&nbsp;the&nbsp;traditional,&nbsp;inconspicuous&nbsp;and&nbsp;distinctly&nbsp;non-aristocratic&nbsp;costume&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;people,&nbsp;described&nbsp;by&nbsp;Einhard&nbsp;thus:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;used&nbsp;to&nbsp;wear&nbsp;the&nbsp;national,&nbsp;that&nbsp;is&nbsp;to&nbsp;say,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frank&nbsp;dress:&nbsp;next&nbsp;to&nbsp;his&nbsp;skin&nbsp;a&nbsp;linen&nbsp;shirt&nbsp;and&nbsp;linen&nbsp;breeches,&nbsp;and&nbsp;above&nbsp;these&nbsp;a&nbsp;tunic&nbsp;fringed&nbsp;with&nbsp;silk;&nbsp;while&nbsp;hose&nbsp;fastened&nbsp;by&nbsp;bands&nbsp;covered&nbsp;his&nbsp;lower&nbsp;limbs,&nbsp;and&nbsp;shoes&nbsp;his&nbsp;feet,&nbsp;and&nbsp;he&nbsp;protected&nbsp;his&nbsp;shoulders&nbsp;and&nbsp;chest&nbsp;in&nbsp;winter&nbsp;by&nbsp;a&nbsp;close-fitting&nbsp;coat&nbsp;of&nbsp;otter&nbsp;or&nbsp;marten&nbsp;skins.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;wore&nbsp;a&nbsp;blue&nbsp;cloak&nbsp;and&nbsp;always&nbsp;carried&nbsp;a&nbsp;sword&nbsp;with&nbsp;him.&nbsp;The&nbsp;typical&nbsp;sword&nbsp;was&nbsp;of&nbsp;a&nbsp;golden&nbsp;or&nbsp;silver&nbsp;hilt.&nbsp;He&nbsp;wore&nbsp;fancy&nbsp;jewelled&nbsp;swords&nbsp;to&nbsp;banquets&nbsp;or&nbsp;ambassadorial&nbsp;receptions.&nbsp;Nevertheless:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;despised&nbsp;foreign&nbsp;costumes,&nbsp;however&nbsp;handsome,&nbsp;and&nbsp;never&nbsp;allowed&nbsp;himself&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;robed&nbsp;in&nbsp;them,&nbsp;except&nbsp;twice&nbsp;in&nbsp;Rome,&nbsp;when&nbsp;he&nbsp;donned&nbsp;the&nbsp;Roman&nbsp;tunic,&nbsp;chlamys,&nbsp;and&nbsp;shoes;&nbsp;the&nbsp;first&nbsp;time&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;request&nbsp;of&nbsp;Pope&nbsp;Hadrian,&nbsp;the&nbsp;second&nbsp;to&nbsp;gratify&nbsp;Leo,&nbsp;Hadrian&#39;s&nbsp;successor.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;could&nbsp;rise&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;occasion&nbsp;when&nbsp;necessary.&nbsp;On&nbsp;great&nbsp;feast&nbsp;days,&nbsp;he&nbsp;wore&nbsp;embroidery&nbsp;and&nbsp;jewels&nbsp;on&nbsp;his&nbsp;clothing&nbsp;and&nbsp;shoes.&nbsp;He&nbsp;had&nbsp;a&nbsp;golden&nbsp;buckle&nbsp;for&nbsp;his&nbsp;cloak&nbsp;on&nbsp;such&nbsp;occasions&nbsp;and&nbsp;would&nbsp;appear&nbsp;with&nbsp;his&nbsp;greatdiadem,&nbsp;but&nbsp;he&nbsp;despised&nbsp;such&nbsp;apparel,&nbsp;according&nbsp;to&nbsp;Einhard,&nbsp;and&nbsp;usually&nbsp;dressed&nbsp;like&nbsp;the&nbsp;common&nbsp;people.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Rise&nbsp;to&nbsp;power<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Early&nbsp;life<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&nbsp;was&nbsp;the&nbsp;eldest&nbsp;child&nbsp;of&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;the&nbsp;Short&nbsp;(714&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;24&nbsp;September&nbsp;768,&nbsp;reigned&nbsp;from&nbsp;751)&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;wife&nbsp;Bertrada&nbsp;of&nbsp;Laon&nbsp;(720&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;12&nbsp;July&nbsp;783),&nbsp;daughter&nbsp;of&nbsp;Caribert&nbsp;of&nbsp;Laon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bertrada&nbsp;of&nbsp;Cologne.&nbsp;Records&nbsp;name&nbsp;only&nbsp;Carloman,&nbsp;Gisela,&nbsp;and&nbsp;a&nbsp;short-lived&nbsp;child&nbsp;named&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;as&nbsp;his&nbsp;younger&nbsp;siblings.&nbsp;The&nbsp;semi-mythical&nbsp;Redburga,&nbsp;wife&nbsp;of&nbsp;King&nbsp;Egbert&nbsp;of&nbsp;Wessex,&nbsp;is&nbsp;sometimes&nbsp;claimed&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;his&nbsp;sister&nbsp;(or&nbsp;sister-in-law&nbsp;or&nbsp;niece),&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;legendary&nbsp;material&nbsp;makes&nbsp;him&nbsp;Roland&#39;s&nbsp;maternal&nbsp;uncle&nbsp;through&nbsp;a&nbsp;lady&nbsp;Bertha.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Much&nbsp;of&nbsp;what&nbsp;is&nbsp;known&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;life&nbsp;comes&nbsp;from&nbsp;his&nbsp;biographer,&nbsp;Einhard,&nbsp;who&nbsp;wrote&nbsp;a&nbsp;Vita&nbsp;Caroli&nbsp;Magni&nbsp;(or&nbsp;Vita&nbsp;Karoli&nbsp;Magni),&nbsp;the&nbsp;Life&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne.&nbsp;Einhard&nbsp;says&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;early&nbsp;life&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charles:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">It&nbsp;would&nbsp;be&nbsp;folly,&nbsp;I&nbsp;think,&nbsp;to&nbsp;write&nbsp;a&nbsp;word&nbsp;concerning&nbsp;Charles&#39;&nbsp;birth&nbsp;and&nbsp;infancy,&nbsp;or&nbsp;even&nbsp;his&nbsp;boyhood,&nbsp;for&nbsp;nothing&nbsp;has&nbsp;ever&nbsp;been&nbsp;written&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;subject,&nbsp;and&nbsp;there&nbsp;is&nbsp;no&nbsp;one&nbsp;alive&nbsp;now&nbsp;who&nbsp;can&nbsp;give&nbsp;information&nbsp;on&nbsp;it.&nbsp;Accordingly,&nbsp;I&nbsp;determined&nbsp;to&nbsp;pass&nbsp;that&nbsp;by&nbsp;as&nbsp;unknown,&nbsp;and&nbsp;to&nbsp;proceed&nbsp;at&nbsp;once&nbsp;to&nbsp;treat&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;character,&nbsp;his&nbsp;deed,&nbsp;and&nbsp;such&nbsp;other&nbsp;facts&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;life&nbsp;as&nbsp;are&nbsp;worth&nbsp;telling&nbsp;and&nbsp;setting&nbsp;forth,&nbsp;and&nbsp;shall&nbsp;first&nbsp;give&nbsp;an&nbsp;account&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;deed&nbsp;at&nbsp;home&nbsp;and&nbsp;abroad,&nbsp;then&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;character&nbsp;and&nbsp;pursuits,&nbsp;and&nbsp;lastly&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;administration&nbsp;and&nbsp;death,&nbsp;omitting&nbsp;nothing&nbsp;worth&nbsp;knowing&nbsp;or&nbsp;necessary&nbsp;to&nbsp;know.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">On&nbsp;the&nbsp;death&nbsp;of&nbsp;Pippin,&nbsp;the&nbsp;kingdom&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;was&nbsp;divided&mdash;following&nbsp;tradition&mdash;between&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;and&nbsp;Carloman.&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;took&nbsp;the&nbsp;outer&nbsp;parts&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;kingdom,&nbsp;bordering&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;sea,&nbsp;namely&nbsp;Neustria,&nbsp;western&nbsp;Aquitaine,&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;northern&nbsp;parts&nbsp;ofAustrasia,&nbsp;while&nbsp;Carloman&nbsp;retained&nbsp;the&nbsp;inner&nbsp;parts:&nbsp;southern&nbsp;Austrasia,&nbsp;Septimania,&nbsp;eastern&nbsp;Aquitaine,&nbsp;Burgundy,&nbsp;Provence,&nbsp;and&nbsp;Swabia,&nbsp;lands&nbsp;bordering&nbsp;on&nbsp;Italy.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Joint&nbsp;rule<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">On&nbsp;9&nbsp;October,&nbsp;immediately&nbsp;after&nbsp;the&nbsp;funeral&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;father,&nbsp;both&nbsp;the&nbsp;kings&nbsp;withdrew&nbsp;from&nbsp;Saint&nbsp;Denis&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;proclaimed&nbsp;by&nbsp;their&nbsp;nobles&nbsp;and&nbsp;consecrated&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;bishops,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;in&nbsp;Noyon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Carloman&nbsp;in&nbsp;Soissons.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;first&nbsp;event&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;brothers&#39;&nbsp;reign&nbsp;was&nbsp;the&nbsp;rising&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Aquitainians&nbsp;and&nbsp;Gascons,&nbsp;in&nbsp;769,&nbsp;in&nbsp;that&nbsp;territory&nbsp;split&nbsp;between&nbsp;the&nbsp;two&nbsp;kings.&nbsp;Years&nbsp;before&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;had&nbsp;suppressed&nbsp;the&nbsp;revolt&nbsp;of&nbsp;Waifer,&nbsp;Duke&nbsp;of&nbsp;Aquitaine.&nbsp;Now,&nbsp;one&nbsp;Hunald&nbsp;(seemingly&nbsp;other&nbsp;than&nbsp;Hunald&nbsp;the&nbsp;duke)&nbsp;led&nbsp;the&nbsp;Aquitainians&nbsp;as&nbsp;far&nbsp;north&nbsp;as&nbsp;Angoul&ecirc;me.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;met&nbsp;Carloman,&nbsp;but&nbsp;Carloman&nbsp;refused&nbsp;to&nbsp;participate&nbsp;and&nbsp;returned&nbsp;to&nbsp;Burgundy.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;went&nbsp;to&nbsp;war,&nbsp;leading&nbsp;an&nbsp;army&nbsp;to&nbsp;Bordeaux,&nbsp;where&nbsp;he&nbsp;set&nbsp;up&nbsp;a&nbsp;camp&nbsp;at&nbsp;Fronsac.&nbsp;Hunold&nbsp;was&nbsp;forced&nbsp;to&nbsp;flee&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;court&nbsp;of&nbsp;Duke&nbsp;Lupus&nbsp;II&nbsp;of&nbsp;Gascony.&nbsp;Lupus,&nbsp;fearing&nbsp;Charlemagne,&nbsp;turned&nbsp;Hunold&nbsp;over&nbsp;in&nbsp;exchange&nbsp;for&nbsp;peace.&nbsp;He&nbsp;was&nbsp;put&nbsp;in&nbsp;a&nbsp;monastery.&nbsp;Aquitaine&nbsp;was&nbsp;finally&nbsp;fully&nbsp;subdued&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;brothers&nbsp;maintained&nbsp;lukewarm&nbsp;relations&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;assistance&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;mother&nbsp;Bertrada,&nbsp;but&nbsp;in&nbsp;770&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;signed&nbsp;a&nbsp;treaty&nbsp;with&nbsp;Duke&nbsp;Tassilo&nbsp;III&nbsp;of&nbsp;Bavaria&nbsp;and&nbsp;married&nbsp;a&nbsp;Lombard&nbsp;Princess&nbsp;(commonly&nbsp;known&nbsp;today&nbsp;as&nbsp;Desiderata),&nbsp;the&nbsp;daughter&nbsp;of&nbsp;King&nbsp;Desiderius,&nbsp;in&nbsp;order&nbsp;to&nbsp;surround&nbsp;Carloman&nbsp;with&nbsp;his&nbsp;own&nbsp;allies.&nbsp;Though&nbsp;Pope&nbsp;Stephen&nbsp;III&nbsp;first&nbsp;opposed&nbsp;the&nbsp;marriage&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Lombard&nbsp;princess,&nbsp;he&nbsp;would&nbsp;soon&nbsp;have&nbsp;little&nbsp;to&nbsp;fear&nbsp;from&nbsp;a&nbsp;Frankish-Lombard&nbsp;alliance.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Less&nbsp;than&nbsp;a&nbsp;year&nbsp;after&nbsp;his&nbsp;marriage,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;repudiated&nbsp;Desiderata,&nbsp;and&nbsp;quickly&nbsp;remarried&nbsp;to&nbsp;a&nbsp;13-year-old&nbsp;Swabian&nbsp;named&nbsp;Hildegard.&nbsp;The&nbsp;repudiated&nbsp;Desiderata&nbsp;returned&nbsp;to&nbsp;her&nbsp;father&#39;s&nbsp;court&nbsp;at&nbsp;Pavia.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Lombard&#39;s&nbsp;wrath&nbsp;was&nbsp;now&nbsp;aroused&nbsp;and&nbsp;he&nbsp;would&nbsp;gladly&nbsp;have&nbsp;allied&nbsp;with&nbsp;Carloman&nbsp;to&nbsp;defeat&nbsp;Charles.&nbsp;But&nbsp;before&nbsp;war&nbsp;could&nbsp;break&nbsp;out,&nbsp;Carloman&nbsp;died&nbsp;on&nbsp;5&nbsp;December&nbsp;771.&nbsp;Carloman&#39;s&nbsp;wife&nbsp;Gerberga&nbsp;fled&nbsp;to&nbsp;Desiderius&#39;&nbsp;court&nbsp;with&nbsp;her&nbsp;sons&nbsp;for&nbsp;protection.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Italian&nbsp;campaigns<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Conquest&nbsp;of&nbsp;Lombardy<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;king&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;was&nbsp;a&nbsp;devout&nbsp;Catholic&nbsp;who&nbsp;maintained&nbsp;a&nbsp;close&nbsp;relationship&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;papacy&nbsp;throughout&nbsp;his&nbsp;life.&nbsp;In&nbsp;772,&nbsp;when&nbsp;Pope&nbsp;Hadrian&nbsp;I&nbsp;was&nbsp;threatened&nbsp;by&nbsp;invaders,&nbsp;the&nbsp;king&nbsp;rushed&nbsp;to&nbsp;Rome&nbsp;to&nbsp;provide&nbsp;assistance.&nbsp;Shown&nbsp;here,&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&nbsp;asks&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;for&nbsp;help&nbsp;at&nbsp;a&nbsp;meeting&nbsp;near&nbsp;Rome<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">At&nbsp;the&nbsp;succession&nbsp;of&nbsp;Pope&nbsp;Hadrian&nbsp;I&nbsp;in&nbsp;772,&nbsp;he&nbsp;demanded&nbsp;the&nbsp;return&nbsp;of&nbsp;certain&nbsp;cities&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;former&nbsp;exarchate&nbsp;of&nbsp;Ravenna&nbsp;as&nbsp;in&nbsp;accordance&nbsp;with&nbsp;a&nbsp;promise&nbsp;of&nbsp;Desiderius&#39;&nbsp;succession.&nbsp;Desiderius&nbsp;instead&nbsp;took&nbsp;over&nbsp;certain&nbsp;papal&nbsp;cities&nbsp;and&nbsp;invaded&nbsp;the&nbsp;Pentapolis,&nbsp;heading&nbsp;for&nbsp;Rome.&nbsp;Hadrian&nbsp;sent&nbsp;embassies&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;in&nbsp;autumn&nbsp;requesting&nbsp;he&nbsp;enforce&nbsp;the&nbsp;policies&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;father,&nbsp;Pippin.&nbsp;Desiderius&nbsp;sent&nbsp;his&nbsp;own&nbsp;embassies&nbsp;denying&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&#39;s&nbsp;charges.&nbsp;The&nbsp;embassies&nbsp;both&nbsp;met&nbsp;at&nbsp;Thionville&nbsp;and&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;upheld&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&#39;s&nbsp;side.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;promptly&nbsp;demanded&nbsp;what&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&nbsp;had&nbsp;demanded&nbsp;and&nbsp;Desiderius&nbsp;promptly&nbsp;swore&nbsp;never&nbsp;to&nbsp;comply.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;uncle&nbsp;Bernard&nbsp;crossed&nbsp;the&nbsp;Alps&nbsp;in&nbsp;773&nbsp;and&nbsp;chased&nbsp;the&nbsp;Lombards&nbsp;back&nbsp;to&nbsp;Pavia,&nbsp;which&nbsp;they&nbsp;then&nbsp;besieged.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;temporarily&nbsp;left&nbsp;the&nbsp;siege&nbsp;to&nbsp;deal&nbsp;with&nbsp;Adelchis,&nbsp;son&nbsp;of&nbsp;Desiderius,&nbsp;who&nbsp;was&nbsp;raising&nbsp;an&nbsp;army&nbsp;at&nbsp;Verona.&nbsp;The&nbsp;young&nbsp;prince&nbsp;was&nbsp;chased&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Adriatic&nbsp;littoral&nbsp;and&nbsp;he&nbsp;fled&nbsp;to&nbsp;Constantinople&nbsp;to&nbsp;plead&nbsp;for&nbsp;assistance&nbsp;from&nbsp;Constantine&nbsp;V,&nbsp;who&nbsp;was&nbsp;waging&nbsp;war&nbsp;with&nbsp;Bulgaria.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;siege&nbsp;lasted&nbsp;until&nbsp;the&nbsp;spring&nbsp;of&nbsp;774,&nbsp;when&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;visited&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&nbsp;in&nbsp;Rome.&nbsp;There&nbsp;he&nbsp;confirmed&nbsp;his&nbsp;father&#39;s&nbsp;grants&nbsp;of&nbsp;land,&nbsp;with&nbsp;some&nbsp;later&nbsp;chronicles&nbsp;claiming&mdash;falsely&mdash;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;also&nbsp;expanded&nbsp;them,&nbsp;granting&nbsp;Tuscany,&nbsp;Emilia,&nbsp;Venice,&nbsp;and&nbsp;Corsica.&nbsp;The&nbsp;pope&nbsp;granted&nbsp;him&nbsp;the&nbsp;title&nbsp;patrician.&nbsp;He&nbsp;then&nbsp;returned&nbsp;to&nbsp;Pavia,&nbsp;where&nbsp;the&nbsp;Lombards&nbsp;were&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;verge&nbsp;of&nbsp;surrendering.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;return&nbsp;for&nbsp;their&nbsp;lives,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Lombards&nbsp;surrendered&nbsp;and&nbsp;opened&nbsp;the&nbsp;gates&nbsp;in&nbsp;early&nbsp;summer.&nbsp;Desiderius&nbsp;was&nbsp;sent&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;abbey&nbsp;of&nbsp;Corbie&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;son&nbsp;Adelchis&nbsp;died&nbsp;in&nbsp;Constantinople&nbsp;a&nbsp;patrician.&nbsp;Charles,&nbsp;unusually,&nbsp;had&nbsp;himself&nbsp;crowned&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Iron&nbsp;Crown&nbsp;and&nbsp;made&nbsp;the&nbsp;magnates&nbsp;of&nbsp;Lombardy&nbsp;do&nbsp;homage&nbsp;to&nbsp;him&nbsp;at&nbsp;Pavia.&nbsp;Only&nbsp;Duke&nbsp;Arechis&nbsp;II&nbsp;of&nbsp;Benevento&nbsp;refused&nbsp;to&nbsp;submit&nbsp;and&nbsp;proclaimed&nbsp;independence.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;was&nbsp;now&nbsp;master&nbsp;of&nbsp;Italy&nbsp;as&nbsp;king&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Lombards.&nbsp;He&nbsp;left&nbsp;Italy&nbsp;with&nbsp;a&nbsp;garrison&nbsp;in&nbsp;Pavia&nbsp;and&nbsp;few&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;counts&nbsp;in&nbsp;place&nbsp;that&nbsp;very&nbsp;year.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">There&nbsp;was&nbsp;still&nbsp;instability,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Italy.&nbsp;In&nbsp;776,&nbsp;Dukes&nbsp;Hrodgaud&nbsp;of&nbsp;Friuli&nbsp;and&nbsp;Hildeprand&nbsp;of&nbsp;Spoleto&nbsp;rebelled.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;rushed&nbsp;back&nbsp;from&nbsp;Saxony&nbsp;and&nbsp;defeated&nbsp;the&nbsp;duke&nbsp;of&nbsp;Friuli&nbsp;in&nbsp;battle.&nbsp;The&nbsp;duke&nbsp;was&nbsp;slain.&nbsp;The&nbsp;duke&nbsp;of&nbsp;Spoleto&nbsp;signed&nbsp;a&nbsp;treaty.&nbsp;Their&nbsp;co-conspirator,&nbsp;Arechis,&nbsp;was&nbsp;not&nbsp;subdued&nbsp;and&nbsp;Adelchis,&nbsp;their&nbsp;candidate&nbsp;in&nbsp;Byzantium,&nbsp;never&nbsp;left&nbsp;that&nbsp;city.&nbsp;Northern&nbsp;Italy&nbsp;was&nbsp;now&nbsp;faithfully&nbsp;his.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Southern&nbsp;Italy<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;787&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;directed&nbsp;his&nbsp;attention&nbsp;towards&nbsp;Benevento,&nbsp;where&nbsp;Arechis&nbsp;was&nbsp;reigning&nbsp;independently.&nbsp;He&nbsp;besieged&nbsp;Salerno&nbsp;and&nbsp;Arechis&nbsp;submitted&nbsp;to&nbsp;vassalage.&nbsp;However,&nbsp;with&nbsp;his&nbsp;death&nbsp;in&nbsp;792,&nbsp;Benevento&nbsp;again&nbsp;proclaimed&nbsp;independence&nbsp;under&nbsp;his&nbsp;son&nbsp;Grimoald&nbsp;III.&nbsp;Grimoald&nbsp;was&nbsp;attacked&nbsp;by&nbsp;armies&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charles&#39;&nbsp;or&nbsp;his&nbsp;sons&#39;&nbsp;many&nbsp;times,&nbsp;but&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;himself&nbsp;never&nbsp;returned&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Mezzogiorno&nbsp;and&nbsp;Grimoald&nbsp;never&nbsp;was&nbsp;forced&nbsp;to&nbsp;surrender&nbsp;to&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;suzerainty.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Charles&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;children<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">During&nbsp;the&nbsp;first&nbsp;peace&nbsp;of&nbsp;any&nbsp;substantial&nbsp;length&nbsp;(780&ndash;782),&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;began&nbsp;to&nbsp;appoint&nbsp;his&nbsp;sons&nbsp;to&nbsp;positions&nbsp;of&nbsp;authority&nbsp;within&nbsp;the&nbsp;realm,&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;tradition&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;kings&nbsp;and&nbsp;mayors&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;past.&nbsp;In&nbsp;781&nbsp;he&nbsp;made&nbsp;his&nbsp;two&nbsp;younger&nbsp;sons&nbsp;kings,&nbsp;having&nbsp;them&nbsp;crowned&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;Pope.&nbsp;The&nbsp;elder&nbsp;of&nbsp;these&nbsp;two,&nbsp;Carloman,&nbsp;was&nbsp;made&nbsp;king&nbsp;of&nbsp;Italy,&nbsp;taking&nbsp;the&nbsp;Iron&nbsp;Crown&nbsp;which&nbsp;his&nbsp;father&nbsp;had&nbsp;first&nbsp;worn&nbsp;in&nbsp;774,&nbsp;and&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;same&nbsp;ceremony&nbsp;was&nbsp;renamed&nbsp;&quot;Pippin.&quot;&nbsp;The&nbsp;younger&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;two,&nbsp;Louis,&nbsp;became&nbsp;king&nbsp;of&nbsp;Aquitaine.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;ordered&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;and&nbsp;Louis&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;raised&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;customs&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;kingdoms,&nbsp;and&nbsp;he&nbsp;gave&nbsp;their&nbsp;regents&nbsp;some&nbsp;control&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;subkingdoms,&nbsp;but&nbsp;real&nbsp;power&nbsp;was&nbsp;always&nbsp;in&nbsp;his&nbsp;hands,&nbsp;though&nbsp;he&nbsp;intended&nbsp;each&nbsp;to&nbsp;inherit&nbsp;their&nbsp;realm&nbsp;some&nbsp;day.&nbsp;Nor&nbsp;did&nbsp;he&nbsp;tolerate&nbsp;insubordination&nbsp;in&nbsp;his&nbsp;sons:&nbsp;in&nbsp;792,&nbsp;he&nbsp;banished&nbsp;his&nbsp;eldest,&nbsp;though&nbsp;illegitimate,&nbsp;son,&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;the&nbsp;Hunchback,&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;monastery&nbsp;of&nbsp;Pr&uuml;m,&nbsp;because&nbsp;the&nbsp;young&nbsp;man&nbsp;had&nbsp;joined&nbsp;a&nbsp;rebellion&nbsp;against&nbsp;him.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;sons&nbsp;fought&nbsp;many&nbsp;wars&nbsp;on&nbsp;behalf&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;father&nbsp;when&nbsp;they&nbsp;came&nbsp;of&nbsp;age.&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;was&nbsp;mostly&nbsp;preoccupied&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Bretons,&nbsp;whose&nbsp;border&nbsp;he&nbsp;shared&nbsp;and&nbsp;who&nbsp;insurrected&nbsp;on&nbsp;at&nbsp;least&nbsp;two&nbsp;occasions&nbsp;and&nbsp;were&nbsp;easily&nbsp;put&nbsp;down,&nbsp;but&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;also&nbsp;sent&nbsp;against&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;on&nbsp;multiple&nbsp;occasions.&nbsp;In&nbsp;805&nbsp;and&nbsp;806,&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;sent&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;B&ouml;hmerwald&nbsp;(modern&nbsp;Bohemia)&nbsp;to&nbsp;deal&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Slavs&nbsp;living&nbsp;there&nbsp;(Czechs).&nbsp;He&nbsp;subjected&nbsp;them&nbsp;to&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;authority&nbsp;and&nbsp;devastated&nbsp;the&nbsp;valley&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Elbe,&nbsp;forcing&nbsp;a&nbsp;tribute&nbsp;on&nbsp;them.&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;had&nbsp;to&nbsp;hold&nbsp;the&nbsp;Avar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Beneventan&nbsp;borders,&nbsp;but&nbsp;also&nbsp;fought&nbsp;the&nbsp;Slavs&nbsp;to&nbsp;his&nbsp;north.&nbsp;He&nbsp;was&nbsp;uniquely&nbsp;poised&nbsp;to&nbsp;fight&nbsp;the&nbsp;Byzantine&nbsp;Empire&nbsp;when&nbsp;finally&nbsp;that&nbsp;conflict&nbsp;arose&nbsp;after&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;imperial&nbsp;coronation&nbsp;and&nbsp;a&nbsp;Venetianrebellion.&nbsp;Finally,&nbsp;Louis&nbsp;was&nbsp;in&nbsp;charge&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Spanish&nbsp;March&nbsp;and&nbsp;also&nbsp;went&nbsp;to&nbsp;southern&nbsp;Italy&nbsp;to&nbsp;fight&nbsp;the&nbsp;duke&nbsp;of&nbsp;Benevento&nbsp;on&nbsp;at&nbsp;least&nbsp;one&nbsp;occasion.&nbsp;He&nbsp;took&nbsp;Barcelona&nbsp;in&nbsp;a&nbsp;great&nbsp;siege&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;year&nbsp;797&nbsp;(see&nbsp;below).<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;attitude&nbsp;toward&nbsp;his&nbsp;daughters&nbsp;has&nbsp;been&nbsp;the&nbsp;subject&nbsp;of&nbsp;much&nbsp;discussion.&nbsp;He&nbsp;kept&nbsp;them&nbsp;at&nbsp;home&nbsp;with&nbsp;him,&nbsp;and&nbsp;refused&nbsp;to&nbsp;allow&nbsp;them&nbsp;to&nbsp;contract&nbsp;sacramental&nbsp;marriages&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;possibly&nbsp;to&nbsp;prevent&nbsp;the&nbsp;creation&nbsp;of&nbsp;cadet&nbsp;branches&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;family&nbsp;to&nbsp;challenge&nbsp;the&nbsp;main&nbsp;line,&nbsp;as&nbsp;had&nbsp;been&nbsp;the&nbsp;case&nbsp;with&nbsp;Tassilo&nbsp;of&nbsp;Bavaria&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;yet&nbsp;he&nbsp;tolerated&nbsp;their&nbsp;extramarital&nbsp;relationships,&nbsp;even&nbsp;rewarding&nbsp;their&nbsp;common-law&nbsp;husbands,&nbsp;and&nbsp;treasured&nbsp;the&nbsp;bastard&nbsp;grandchildren&nbsp;they&nbsp;produced&nbsp;for&nbsp;him.&nbsp;He&nbsp;also,&nbsp;apparently,&nbsp;refused&nbsp;to&nbsp;believe&nbsp;stories&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;wild&nbsp;behaviour.&nbsp;After&nbsp;his&nbsp;death&nbsp;the&nbsp;surviving&nbsp;daughters&nbsp;were&nbsp;banished&nbsp;from&nbsp;the&nbsp;court&nbsp;by&nbsp;their&nbsp;brother,&nbsp;the&nbsp;pious&nbsp;Louis,&nbsp;to&nbsp;take&nbsp;up&nbsp;residence&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;convents&nbsp;they&nbsp;had&nbsp;been&nbsp;bequeathed&nbsp;by&nbsp;their&nbsp;father.&nbsp;At&nbsp;least&nbsp;one&nbsp;of&nbsp;them,&nbsp;Bertha,&nbsp;had&nbsp;a&nbsp;recognised&nbsp;relationship,&nbsp;if&nbsp;not&nbsp;a&nbsp;marriage,&nbsp;with&nbsp;Angilbert,&nbsp;a&nbsp;member&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;court&nbsp;circle.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Spanish&nbsp;campaigns<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">See&nbsp;also:&nbsp;Abbasid-Carolingian&nbsp;alliance<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Roncesvalles&nbsp;campaign<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Roland&nbsp;pledges&nbsp;his&nbsp;fealty&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;in&nbsp;an&nbsp;illustration&nbsp;taken&nbsp;from&nbsp;a&nbsp;manuscript&nbsp;of&nbsp;a&nbsp;chanson&nbsp;de&nbsp;geste<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">According&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Muslim&nbsp;historian&nbsp;Ibn&nbsp;al-Athir,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Diet&nbsp;of&nbsp;Paderborn&nbsp;had&nbsp;received&nbsp;the&nbsp;representatives&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Muslim&nbsp;rulers&nbsp;of&nbsp;Zaragoza,&nbsp;Gerona,&nbsp;Barcelona,&nbsp;and&nbsp;Huesca.&nbsp;Their&nbsp;masters&nbsp;had&nbsp;been&nbsp;cornered&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Iberianpeninsula&nbsp;by&nbsp;Abd&nbsp;ar-Rahman&nbsp;I,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Umayyad&nbsp;emir&nbsp;of&nbsp;C&oacute;rdoba.&nbsp;These&nbsp;Moorish&nbsp;or&nbsp;&quot;Saracen&quot;&nbsp;rulers&nbsp;offered&nbsp;their&nbsp;homage&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;great&nbsp;king&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;in&nbsp;return&nbsp;for&nbsp;military&nbsp;support.&nbsp;Seeing&nbsp;an&nbsp;opportunity&nbsp;to&nbsp;extendChristendom&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;own&nbsp;power&nbsp;and&nbsp;believing&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;a&nbsp;fully&nbsp;conquered&nbsp;nation,&nbsp;he&nbsp;agreed&nbsp;to&nbsp;go&nbsp;to&nbsp;Spain.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;778,&nbsp;he&nbsp;led&nbsp;the&nbsp;Neustrian&nbsp;army&nbsp;across&nbsp;the&nbsp;Western&nbsp;Pyrenees,&nbsp;while&nbsp;the&nbsp;Austrasians,&nbsp;Lombards,&nbsp;and&nbsp;Burgundians&nbsp;passed&nbsp;over&nbsp;the&nbsp;Eastern&nbsp;Pyrenees.&nbsp;The&nbsp;armies&nbsp;met&nbsp;at&nbsp;Zaragoza&nbsp;and&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;received&nbsp;the&nbsp;homage&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Muslim&nbsp;rulers,&nbsp;Sulayman&nbsp;al-Arabi&nbsp;and&nbsp;Kasmin&nbsp;ibn&nbsp;Yusuf,&nbsp;but&nbsp;the&nbsp;city&nbsp;did&nbsp;not&nbsp;fall&nbsp;for&nbsp;him.&nbsp;Indeed,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;was&nbsp;facing&nbsp;the&nbsp;toughest&nbsp;battle&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;career&nbsp;where&nbsp;the&nbsp;Muslims&nbsp;had&nbsp;the&nbsp;upper&nbsp;hand&nbsp;and&nbsp;forced&nbsp;him&nbsp;to&nbsp;retreat.&nbsp;He&nbsp;decided&nbsp;to&nbsp;go&nbsp;home,&nbsp;since&nbsp;he&nbsp;could&nbsp;not&nbsp;trust&nbsp;the&nbsp;Basques,&nbsp;whom&nbsp;he&nbsp;had&nbsp;subdued&nbsp;by&nbsp;conquering&nbsp;Pamplona.&nbsp;He&nbsp;turned&nbsp;to&nbsp;leave&nbsp;Iberia,&nbsp;but&nbsp;as&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;passing&nbsp;through&nbsp;the&nbsp;Pass&nbsp;ofRoncesvalles&nbsp;one&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;most&nbsp;famous&nbsp;events&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;long&nbsp;reign&nbsp;occurred.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Basques&nbsp;fell&nbsp;on&nbsp;his&nbsp;rearguard&nbsp;and&nbsp;baggage&nbsp;train,&nbsp;utterly&nbsp;destroying&nbsp;it.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Battle&nbsp;of&nbsp;Roncevaux&nbsp;Pass,&nbsp;less&nbsp;a&nbsp;battle&nbsp;than&nbsp;a&nbsp;mere&nbsp;skirmish,&nbsp;left&nbsp;many&nbsp;famous&nbsp;dead:&nbsp;among&nbsp;which&nbsp;were&nbsp;the&nbsp;seneschal&nbsp;Eggihard,&nbsp;the&nbsp;count&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;palace&nbsp;Anselm,&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;warden&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Breton&nbsp;March,&nbsp;Roland,&nbsp;inspiring&nbsp;the&nbsp;subsequent&nbsp;creation&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Song&nbsp;of&nbsp;Roland&nbsp;(La&nbsp;Chanson&nbsp;de&nbsp;Roland).<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Wars&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Moors<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Harun&nbsp;al-Rashid&nbsp;receiving&nbsp;a&nbsp;delegation&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;inBaghdad,&nbsp;by&nbsp;Julius&nbsp;K&ouml;ckert.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;conquest&nbsp;of&nbsp;Italy&nbsp;brought&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;in&nbsp;contact&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saracens&nbsp;who,&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;time,&nbsp;controlled&nbsp;the&nbsp;Mediterranean.&nbsp;Pippin,&nbsp;his&nbsp;son,&nbsp;was&nbsp;much&nbsp;occupied&nbsp;with&nbsp;Saracens&nbsp;in&nbsp;Italy.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;conquered&nbsp;Corsica&nbsp;and&nbsp;Sardinia&nbsp;at&nbsp;an&nbsp;unknown&nbsp;date&nbsp;and&nbsp;in&nbsp;799&nbsp;the&nbsp;Balearic&nbsp;Islands.&nbsp;The&nbsp;islands&nbsp;were&nbsp;often&nbsp;attacked&nbsp;by&nbsp;Saracen&nbsp;pirates,&nbsp;but&nbsp;the&nbsp;counts&nbsp;of&nbsp;Genoaand&nbsp;Tuscany&nbsp;(Boniface)&nbsp;kept&nbsp;them&nbsp;at&nbsp;bay&nbsp;with&nbsp;large&nbsp;fleets&nbsp;until&nbsp;the&nbsp;end&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;reign.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;even&nbsp;had&nbsp;contact&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;caliphal&nbsp;court&nbsp;in&nbsp;Baghdad.&nbsp;In&nbsp;797&nbsp;(or&nbsp;possibly&nbsp;801),&nbsp;the&nbsp;caliph&nbsp;of&nbsp;Baghdad,&nbsp;Harun&nbsp;al-Rashid,&nbsp;presented&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;with&nbsp;an&nbsp;Asian&nbsp;elephant&nbsp;named&nbsp;Abul-Abbas&nbsp;and&nbsp;a&nbsp;clock.[9]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;Hispania&nbsp;the&nbsp;struggle&nbsp;against&nbsp;the&nbsp;Moors&nbsp;continued&nbsp;unabated&nbsp;throughout&nbsp;the&nbsp;latter&nbsp;half&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;reign.&nbsp;His&nbsp;son&nbsp;Louis&nbsp;was&nbsp;in&nbsp;charge&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Spanish&nbsp;border.&nbsp;In&nbsp;785,&nbsp;his&nbsp;men&nbsp;captured&nbsp;Gerona&nbsp;permanently&nbsp;and&nbsp;extended&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;control&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;Catalan&nbsp;littoral&nbsp;for&nbsp;the&nbsp;duration&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;reign&nbsp;(and&nbsp;much&nbsp;longer,&nbsp;it&nbsp;remained&nbsp;nominally&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;until&nbsp;the&nbsp;Treaty&nbsp;of&nbsp;Corbeil&nbsp;in&nbsp;1258).&nbsp;The&nbsp;Muslim&nbsp;chiefs&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;northeast&nbsp;of&nbsp;Islamic&nbsp;Spain&nbsp;were&nbsp;constantly&nbsp;revolting&nbsp;against&nbsp;C&oacute;rdoban&nbsp;authority&nbsp;and&nbsp;they&nbsp;often&nbsp;turned&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;for&nbsp;help.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;border&nbsp;was&nbsp;slowly&nbsp;extended&nbsp;until&nbsp;795,&nbsp;when&nbsp;Gerona,&nbsp;Cardona,&nbsp;Ausona,&nbsp;and&nbsp;Urgel&nbsp;were&nbsp;united&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;new&nbsp;Spanish&nbsp;March,&nbsp;within&nbsp;the&nbsp;old&nbsp;duchy&nbsp;of&nbsp;Septimania.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;797&nbsp;Barcelona,&nbsp;the&nbsp;greatest&nbsp;city&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;region,&nbsp;fell&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;when&nbsp;Zeid,&nbsp;its&nbsp;governor,&nbsp;rebelled&nbsp;against&nbsp;C&oacute;rdoba&nbsp;and,&nbsp;failing,&nbsp;handed&nbsp;it&nbsp;to&nbsp;them.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Umayyad&nbsp;authority&nbsp;recaptured&nbsp;it&nbsp;in&nbsp;799.&nbsp;However,&nbsp;Louis&nbsp;of&nbsp;Aquitaine&nbsp;marched&nbsp;the&nbsp;entire&nbsp;army&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;kingdom&nbsp;over&nbsp;the&nbsp;Pyrenees&nbsp;and&nbsp;besieged&nbsp;it&nbsp;for&nbsp;two&nbsp;years,&nbsp;wintering&nbsp;there&nbsp;from&nbsp;800&nbsp;to&nbsp;801,&nbsp;when&nbsp;it&nbsp;capitulated.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;continued&nbsp;to&nbsp;press&nbsp;forwards&nbsp;against&nbsp;the&nbsp;emir.&nbsp;They&nbsp;took&nbsp;Tarragona&nbsp;in&nbsp;809&nbsp;and&nbsp;Tortosa&nbsp;in&nbsp;811.&nbsp;The&nbsp;last&nbsp;conquest&nbsp;brought&nbsp;them&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;mouth&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Ebro&nbsp;and&nbsp;gave&nbsp;them&nbsp;raiding&nbsp;access&nbsp;to&nbsp;Valencia,&nbsp;prompting&nbsp;the&nbsp;Emir&nbsp;al-Hakam&nbsp;I&nbsp;to&nbsp;recognise&nbsp;their&nbsp;conquests&nbsp;in&nbsp;812.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Eastern&nbsp;campaigns<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Saxon&nbsp;Wars<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Map&nbsp;showing&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;additions&nbsp;(in&nbsp;blue)&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;Kingdom.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&nbsp;was&nbsp;engaged&nbsp;in&nbsp;almost&nbsp;constant&nbsp;battle&nbsp;throughout&nbsp;his&nbsp;reign,&nbsp;often&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;head&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;elite&nbsp;scara&nbsp;bodyguard&nbsp;squadrons,&nbsp;with&nbsp;his&nbsp;legendary&nbsp;sword&nbsp;Joyeuse&nbsp;in&nbsp;hand.&nbsp;After&nbsp;thirty&nbsp;years&nbsp;of&nbsp;war&nbsp;and&nbsp;eighteen&nbsp;battles&mdash;the&nbsp;Saxon&nbsp;Wars&mdash;he&nbsp;conquered&nbsp;Saxonia&nbsp;and&nbsp;proceeded&nbsp;to&nbsp;convert&nbsp;the&nbsp;conquered&nbsp;to&nbsp;Roman&nbsp;Catholicism,&nbsp;using&nbsp;force&nbsp;where&nbsp;necessary.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;were&nbsp;divided&nbsp;into&nbsp;four&nbsp;subgroups&nbsp;in&nbsp;four&nbsp;regions.&nbsp;Nearest&nbsp;to&nbsp;Austrasia&nbsp;was&nbsp;Westphalia&nbsp;and&nbsp;furthest&nbsp;away&nbsp;was&nbsp;Eastphalia.&nbsp;In&nbsp;between&nbsp;these&nbsp;two&nbsp;kingdoms&nbsp;was&nbsp;that&nbsp;of&nbsp;Engria&nbsp;and&nbsp;north&nbsp;of&nbsp;these&nbsp;three,&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;base&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Jutland&nbsp;peninsula,&nbsp;was&nbsp;Nordalbingia.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;his&nbsp;first&nbsp;campaign,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;forced&nbsp;the&nbsp;Engrians&nbsp;in&nbsp;773&nbsp;to&nbsp;submit&nbsp;and&nbsp;cut&nbsp;down&nbsp;an&nbsp;Irminsul&nbsp;pillar&nbsp;near&nbsp;Paderborn.&nbsp;The&nbsp;campaign&nbsp;was&nbsp;cut&nbsp;short&nbsp;by&nbsp;his&nbsp;first&nbsp;expedition&nbsp;to&nbsp;Italy.&nbsp;He&nbsp;returned&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;year&nbsp;775,&nbsp;marching&nbsp;through&nbsp;Westphalia&nbsp;and&nbsp;conquering&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxon&nbsp;fort&nbsp;of&nbsp;Sigiburg.&nbsp;He&nbsp;then&nbsp;crossed&nbsp;Engria,&nbsp;where&nbsp;he&nbsp;defeated&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;again.&nbsp;Finally,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Eastphalia,&nbsp;he&nbsp;defeated&nbsp;a&nbsp;Saxon&nbsp;force,&nbsp;and&nbsp;its&nbsp;leader&nbsp;Hessi&nbsp;converted&nbsp;to&nbsp;Christianity.&nbsp;He&nbsp;returned&nbsp;through&nbsp;Westphalia,&nbsp;leaving&nbsp;encampments&nbsp;at&nbsp;Sigiburg&nbsp;and&nbsp;Eresburg,&nbsp;which&nbsp;had,&nbsp;up&nbsp;until&nbsp;then,&nbsp;been&nbsp;important&nbsp;Saxon&nbsp;bastions.&nbsp;All&nbsp;Saxony&nbsp;but&nbsp;Nordalbingia&nbsp;was&nbsp;under&nbsp;his&nbsp;control,&nbsp;but&nbsp;Saxon&nbsp;resistance&nbsp;had&nbsp;not&nbsp;ended.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Following&nbsp;his&nbsp;campaign&nbsp;in&nbsp;Italy&nbsp;subjugating&nbsp;the&nbsp;dukes&nbsp;of&nbsp;Friuli&nbsp;and&nbsp;Spoleto,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;returned&nbsp;very&nbsp;rapidly&nbsp;to&nbsp;Saxony&nbsp;in&nbsp;776,&nbsp;where&nbsp;a&nbsp;rebellion&nbsp;had&nbsp;destroyed&nbsp;his&nbsp;fortress&nbsp;at&nbsp;Eresburg.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;were&nbsp;once&nbsp;again&nbsp;brought&nbsp;to&nbsp;heel,&nbsp;but&nbsp;their&nbsp;main&nbsp;leader,&nbsp;duke&nbsp;Widukind,&nbsp;managed&nbsp;to&nbsp;escape&nbsp;to&nbsp;Denmark,&nbsp;home&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;wife.&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;built&nbsp;a&nbsp;new&nbsp;camp&nbsp;at&nbsp;Karlstadt.&nbsp;In&nbsp;777,&nbsp;he&nbsp;called&nbsp;a&nbsp;national&nbsp;diet&nbsp;at&nbsp;Paderborn&nbsp;to&nbsp;integrate&nbsp;Saxony&nbsp;fully&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;kingdom.&nbsp;Many&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;were&nbsp;baptised.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;the&nbsp;summer&nbsp;of&nbsp;779,&nbsp;he&nbsp;again&nbsp;invaded&nbsp;Saxony&nbsp;and&nbsp;reconquered&nbsp;Eastphalia,&nbsp;Engria,&nbsp;and&nbsp;Westphalia.&nbsp;At&nbsp;a&nbsp;diet&nbsp;near&nbsp;Lippe,&nbsp;he&nbsp;divided&nbsp;the&nbsp;land&nbsp;into&nbsp;missionary&nbsp;districts&nbsp;and&nbsp;himself&nbsp;assisted&nbsp;in&nbsp;several&nbsp;mass&nbsp;baptisms&nbsp;(780).&nbsp;He&nbsp;then&nbsp;returned&nbsp;to&nbsp;Italy&nbsp;and,&nbsp;for&nbsp;the&nbsp;first&nbsp;time,&nbsp;there&nbsp;was&nbsp;no&nbsp;immediate&nbsp;Saxon&nbsp;revolt.&nbsp;In&nbsp;780&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;decreed&nbsp;the&nbsp;death&nbsp;penalty&nbsp;for&nbsp;all&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;who&nbsp;failed&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;baptised,&nbsp;who&nbsp;failed&nbsp;to&nbsp;keep&nbsp;Christian&nbsp;festivals,&nbsp;and&nbsp;who&nbsp;cremated&nbsp;their&nbsp;dead.&nbsp;Saxony&nbsp;had&nbsp;peace&nbsp;from&nbsp;780&nbsp;to&nbsp;782.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&nbsp;(742-814)&nbsp;receiving&nbsp;the&nbsp;submission&nbsp;of&nbsp;Witikindat&nbsp;Paderborn&nbsp;in&nbsp;785,&nbsp;by&nbsp;Ary&nbsp;Scheffer&nbsp;(1795-1858).&nbsp;Versailles.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;returned&nbsp;in&nbsp;782&nbsp;to&nbsp;Saxony&nbsp;and&nbsp;instituted&nbsp;a&nbsp;code&nbsp;of&nbsp;law&nbsp;and&nbsp;appointed&nbsp;counts,&nbsp;both&nbsp;Saxon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Frank.&nbsp;The&nbsp;laws&nbsp;were&nbsp;draconian&nbsp;on&nbsp;religious&nbsp;issues,&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;indigenous&nbsp;forms&nbsp;of&nbsp;Germanic&nbsp;polytheism&nbsp;were&nbsp;gravely&nbsp;threatened&nbsp;by&nbsp;Christianisation.&nbsp;This&nbsp;stirred&nbsp;a&nbsp;renewal&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;old&nbsp;conflict.&nbsp;That&nbsp;year,&nbsp;in&nbsp;autumn,&nbsp;Widukind&nbsp;returned&nbsp;and&nbsp;led&nbsp;a&nbsp;new&nbsp;revolt,&nbsp;which&nbsp;resulted&nbsp;in&nbsp;several&nbsp;assaults&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;church.&nbsp;In&nbsp;response,&nbsp;at&nbsp;Verden&nbsp;in&nbsp;Lower&nbsp;Saxony,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;allegedly&nbsp;ordered&nbsp;the&nbsp;beheading&nbsp;of&nbsp;4,500&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;who&nbsp;had&nbsp;been&nbsp;caught&nbsp;practising&nbsp;their&nbsp;native&nbsp;paganism&nbsp;after&nbsp;conversion&nbsp;to&nbsp;Christianity,&nbsp;known&nbsp;as&nbsp;the&nbsp;Massacre&nbsp;of&nbsp;Verden&nbsp;(&quot;Verdener&nbsp;Blutgericht&quot;).&nbsp;The&nbsp;massacre&nbsp;triggered&nbsp;three&nbsp;years&nbsp;of&nbsp;renewed&nbsp;bloody&nbsp;warfare&nbsp;(783-785).&nbsp;During&nbsp;this&nbsp;war&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frisians&nbsp;were&nbsp;also&nbsp;finally&nbsp;subdued&nbsp;and&nbsp;a&nbsp;large&nbsp;part&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;fleet&nbsp;was&nbsp;burned.&nbsp;The&nbsp;war&nbsp;ended&nbsp;with&nbsp;Widukindaccepting&nbsp;baptism.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Thereafter,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;maintained&nbsp;the&nbsp;peace&nbsp;for&nbsp;seven&nbsp;years,&nbsp;but&nbsp;in&nbsp;792&nbsp;the&nbsp;Westphalians&nbsp;once&nbsp;again&nbsp;rose&nbsp;against&nbsp;their&nbsp;conquerors.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Eastphalians&nbsp;and&nbsp;Nordalbingians&nbsp;joined&nbsp;them&nbsp;in&nbsp;793,&nbsp;but&nbsp;the&nbsp;insurrection&nbsp;did&nbsp;not&nbsp;catch&nbsp;on&nbsp;and&nbsp;was&nbsp;put&nbsp;down&nbsp;by&nbsp;794.&nbsp;An&nbsp;Engrian&nbsp;rebellion&nbsp;followed&nbsp;in&nbsp;796,&nbsp;but&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;personal&nbsp;presence&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;presence&nbsp;of&nbsp;Christian&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;and&nbsp;Slavs&nbsp;quickly&nbsp;crushed&nbsp;it.&nbsp;The&nbsp;last&nbsp;insurrection&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;independence-minded&nbsp;people&nbsp;occurred&nbsp;in&nbsp;804,&nbsp;more&nbsp;than&nbsp;thirty&nbsp;years&nbsp;after&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;first&nbsp;campaign&nbsp;against&nbsp;them.&nbsp;This&nbsp;time,&nbsp;the&nbsp;most&nbsp;unruly&nbsp;of&nbsp;them,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Nordalbingians,&nbsp;found&nbsp;themselves&nbsp;effectively&nbsp;disempowered&nbsp;from&nbsp;rebellion.&nbsp;According&nbsp;to&nbsp;Einhard:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;war&nbsp;that&nbsp;had&nbsp;lasted&nbsp;so&nbsp;many&nbsp;years&nbsp;was&nbsp;at&nbsp;length&nbsp;ended&nbsp;by&nbsp;their&nbsp;acceding&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;terms&nbsp;offered&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;King;&nbsp;which&nbsp;were&nbsp;renunciation&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;national&nbsp;religious&nbsp;customs&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;worship&nbsp;of&nbsp;devils,&nbsp;acceptance&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;sacraments&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Christian&nbsp;faith&nbsp;and&nbsp;religion,&nbsp;and&nbsp;union&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;to&nbsp;form&nbsp;one&nbsp;people.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Saxon&nbsp;resistance&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;rule&nbsp;was&nbsp;at&nbsp;an&nbsp;end.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Submission&nbsp;of&nbsp;Bavaria<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;788,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;turned&nbsp;his&nbsp;attention&nbsp;to&nbsp;Bavaria.&nbsp;He&nbsp;claimed&nbsp;Tassilo&nbsp;was&nbsp;an&nbsp;unfit&nbsp;ruler&nbsp;on&nbsp;account&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;oath-breaking.&nbsp;The&nbsp;charges&nbsp;were&nbsp;trumped&nbsp;up,&nbsp;but&nbsp;Tassilo&nbsp;was&nbsp;deposed&nbsp;anyway&nbsp;and&nbsp;put&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;monastery&nbsp;of&nbsp;Jumi&egrave;ges.&nbsp;In&nbsp;794,&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;made&nbsp;to&nbsp;renounce&nbsp;any&nbsp;claim&nbsp;to&nbsp;Bavaria&nbsp;for&nbsp;himself&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;family&nbsp;(the&nbsp;Agilolfings)&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;synod&nbsp;of&nbsp;Frankfurt.&nbsp;Bavaria&nbsp;was&nbsp;subdivided&nbsp;into&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;counties,&nbsp;like&nbsp;Saxony.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Avar&nbsp;campaigns<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;788,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Avars,&nbsp;a&nbsp;pagan&nbsp;Asian&nbsp;horde&nbsp;which&nbsp;had&nbsp;settled&nbsp;down&nbsp;in&nbsp;what&nbsp;is&nbsp;today&nbsp;Hungary&nbsp;(Einhard&nbsp;called&nbsp;them&nbsp;Huns),&nbsp;invaded&nbsp;Friuli&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bavaria.&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;was&nbsp;preoccupied&nbsp;until&nbsp;790&nbsp;with&nbsp;other&nbsp;things,&nbsp;but&nbsp;in&nbsp;that&nbsp;year,&nbsp;he&nbsp;marched&nbsp;down&nbsp;the&nbsp;Danube&nbsp;into&nbsp;their&nbsp;territory&nbsp;and&nbsp;ravaged&nbsp;it&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Raab.&nbsp;Then,&nbsp;a&nbsp;Lombard&nbsp;army&nbsp;under&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;marched&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;Drava&nbsp;valley&nbsp;and&nbsp;ravaged&nbsp;Pannonia.&nbsp;The&nbsp;campaigns&nbsp;would&nbsp;have&nbsp;continued&nbsp;if&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons&nbsp;had&nbsp;not&nbsp;revolted&nbsp;again&nbsp;in&nbsp;792,&nbsp;breaking&nbsp;seven&nbsp;years&nbsp;of&nbsp;peace.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">For&nbsp;the&nbsp;next&nbsp;two&nbsp;years,&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;was&nbsp;occupied&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Slavs&nbsp;against&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons.&nbsp;Pippin&nbsp;and&nbsp;Duke&nbsp;Eric&nbsp;of&nbsp;Friuli&nbsp;continued,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;to&nbsp;assault&nbsp;the&nbsp;Avars&#39;&nbsp;ring-shaped&nbsp;strongholds.&nbsp;The&nbsp;great&nbsp;Ring&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Avars,&nbsp;their&nbsp;capital&nbsp;fortress,&nbsp;was&nbsp;taken&nbsp;twice.&nbsp;The&nbsp;booty&nbsp;was&nbsp;sent&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;at&nbsp;his&nbsp;capital,&nbsp;Aachen,&nbsp;and&nbsp;redistributed&nbsp;to&nbsp;all&nbsp;his&nbsp;followers&nbsp;and&nbsp;even&nbsp;to&nbsp;foreign&nbsp;rulers,&nbsp;including&nbsp;King&nbsp;Offa&nbsp;of&nbsp;Mercia.&nbsp;Soon&nbsp;the&nbsp;Avar&nbsp;tuduns&nbsp;had&nbsp;thrown&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;towel&nbsp;and&nbsp;travelled&nbsp;to&nbsp;Aachen&nbsp;to&nbsp;subject&nbsp;themselves&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;as&nbsp;vassals&nbsp;and&nbsp;Christians.&nbsp;This&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;accepted&nbsp;and&nbsp;sent&nbsp;one&nbsp;native&nbsp;chief,&nbsp;baptised&nbsp;Abraham,&nbsp;back&nbsp;to&nbsp;Avaria&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;ancient&nbsp;title&nbsp;of&nbsp;khagan.&nbsp;Abraham&nbsp;kept&nbsp;his&nbsp;people&nbsp;in&nbsp;line,&nbsp;but&nbsp;in&nbsp;800&nbsp;the&nbsp;Bulgarians&nbsp;under&nbsp;Krum&nbsp;swept&nbsp;the&nbsp;Avar&nbsp;state&nbsp;away.&nbsp;In&nbsp;the&nbsp;10th&nbsp;century,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Magyars&nbsp;settled&nbsp;the&nbsp;Pannonian&nbsp;plain&nbsp;and&nbsp;presented&nbsp;a&nbsp;new&nbsp;threat&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;descendants.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Slav&nbsp;expeditions<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;789,&nbsp;in&nbsp;recognition&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;new&nbsp;pagan&nbsp;neighbours,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Slavs,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;marched&nbsp;an&nbsp;Austrasian-Saxon&nbsp;army&nbsp;across&nbsp;the&nbsp;Elbe&nbsp;into&nbsp;Obotrite&nbsp;territory.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Slavs&nbsp;immediately&nbsp;submitted&nbsp;under&nbsp;their&nbsp;leader&nbsp;Witzin.&nbsp;He&nbsp;then&nbsp;accepted&nbsp;the&nbsp;surrender&nbsp;of&nbsp;theWiltzes&nbsp;under&nbsp;Dragovit&nbsp;and&nbsp;demanded&nbsp;many&nbsp;hostages&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;permission&nbsp;to&nbsp;send,&nbsp;unmolested,&nbsp;missionaries&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;pagan&nbsp;region.&nbsp;The&nbsp;army&nbsp;marched&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Baltic&nbsp;before&nbsp;turning&nbsp;around&nbsp;and&nbsp;marching&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Rhine&nbsp;with&nbsp;much&nbsp;booty&nbsp;and&nbsp;no&nbsp;harassment.&nbsp;The&nbsp;tributary&nbsp;Slavs&nbsp;became&nbsp;loyal&nbsp;allies.&nbsp;In&nbsp;795,&nbsp;the&nbsp;peace&nbsp;broken&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Abotrites&nbsp;and&nbsp;Wiltzes&nbsp;rose&nbsp;in&nbsp;arms&nbsp;with&nbsp;their&nbsp;new&nbsp;master&nbsp;against&nbsp;the&nbsp;Saxons.&nbsp;Witzin&nbsp;died&nbsp;in&nbsp;battle&nbsp;and&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;avenged&nbsp;him&nbsp;by&nbsp;harrying&nbsp;the&nbsp;Eastphalians&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;Elbe.&nbsp;Thrasuco,&nbsp;his&nbsp;successor,&nbsp;led&nbsp;his&nbsp;men&nbsp;to&nbsp;conquest&nbsp;over&nbsp;the&nbsp;Nordalbingians&nbsp;and&nbsp;handed&nbsp;their&nbsp;leaders&nbsp;over&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne,&nbsp;who&nbsp;greatly&nbsp;honoured&nbsp;him.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Abotrites&nbsp;remained&nbsp;loyal&nbsp;until&nbsp;Charles&#39;&nbsp;death&nbsp;and&nbsp;fought&nbsp;later&nbsp;against&nbsp;the&nbsp;Danes.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&nbsp;also&nbsp;directed&nbsp;his&nbsp;attention&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Slavs&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;south&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Avar&nbsp;khaganate:&nbsp;the&nbsp;Carantanians&nbsp;and&nbsp;Carniolans.&nbsp;These&nbsp;people&nbsp;were&nbsp;subdued&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;Lombards&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bavarii&nbsp;and&nbsp;made&nbsp;tributaries,&nbsp;but&nbsp;never&nbsp;incorporated&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;state.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Imperium<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Imperial&nbsp;diplomacy<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;chapel&nbsp;at&nbsp;Aachen&nbsp;Cathedral.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;799,&nbsp;Pope&nbsp;Leo&nbsp;III&nbsp;had&nbsp;been&nbsp;mistreated&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;Romans,&nbsp;who&nbsp;tried&nbsp;to&nbsp;put&nbsp;out&nbsp;his&nbsp;eyes&nbsp;and&nbsp;tear&nbsp;out&nbsp;his&nbsp;tongue.&nbsp;Leo&nbsp;escaped,&nbsp;and&nbsp;fled&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;at&nbsp;Paderborn,&nbsp;asking&nbsp;him&nbsp;to&nbsp;intervene&nbsp;in&nbsp;Rome&nbsp;and&nbsp;restore&nbsp;him.&nbsp;Charlemagne,&nbsp;advised&nbsp;by&nbsp;Alcuin&nbsp;of&nbsp;York,&nbsp;agreed&nbsp;to&nbsp;travel&nbsp;to&nbsp;Rome,&nbsp;doing&nbsp;so&nbsp;in&nbsp;November&nbsp;800&nbsp;and&nbsp;holding&nbsp;a&nbsp;council&nbsp;on&nbsp;December&nbsp;1.&nbsp;On&nbsp;December&nbsp;23&nbsp;Leo&nbsp;swore&nbsp;an&nbsp;oath&nbsp;of&nbsp;innocence.&nbsp;At&nbsp;Mass,&nbsp;on&nbsp;Christmas&nbsp;Day&nbsp;(December&nbsp;25),&nbsp;when&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;knelt&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;altar&nbsp;to&nbsp;pray,&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&nbsp;crowned&nbsp;him&nbsp;Imperator&nbsp;Romanorum&nbsp;(&quot;Emperor&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Romans&quot;)&nbsp;in&nbsp;Saint&nbsp;Peter&#39;s&nbsp;Basilica.&nbsp;In&nbsp;so&nbsp;doing,&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&nbsp;was&nbsp;effectively&nbsp;attempting&nbsp;to&nbsp;transfer&nbsp;the&nbsp;office&nbsp;from&nbsp;Constantinople&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charles.&nbsp;Einhard&nbsp;says&nbsp;that&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;was&nbsp;ignorant&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&#39;s&nbsp;intent&nbsp;and&nbsp;did&nbsp;not&nbsp;want&nbsp;any&nbsp;such&nbsp;coronation:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[H]e&nbsp;at&nbsp;first&nbsp;had&nbsp;such&nbsp;an&nbsp;aversion&nbsp;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;declared&nbsp;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;would&nbsp;not&nbsp;have&nbsp;set&nbsp;foot&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Church&nbsp;the&nbsp;day&nbsp;that&nbsp;they&nbsp;[the&nbsp;imperial&nbsp;titles]&nbsp;were&nbsp;conferred,&nbsp;although&nbsp;it&nbsp;was&nbsp;a&nbsp;great&nbsp;feast-day,&nbsp;if&nbsp;he&nbsp;could&nbsp;have&nbsp;foreseen&nbsp;the&nbsp;design&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Pope.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Many&nbsp;modern&nbsp;scholars&nbsp;suggest&nbsp;that&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;was&nbsp;indeed&nbsp;aware&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;coronation;&nbsp;certainly&nbsp;he&nbsp;cannot&nbsp;have&nbsp;missed&nbsp;the&nbsp;bejeweled&nbsp;crown&nbsp;waiting&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;altar&nbsp;when&nbsp;he&nbsp;came&nbsp;to&nbsp;pray.&nbsp;In&nbsp;any&nbsp;event,&nbsp;he&nbsp;would&nbsp;now&nbsp;use&nbsp;these&nbsp;circumstances&nbsp;to&nbsp;claim&nbsp;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;was&nbsp;the&nbsp;renewer&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Roman&nbsp;Empire,&nbsp;which&nbsp;had&nbsp;apparently&nbsp;fallen&nbsp;into&nbsp;degradation&nbsp;under&nbsp;the&nbsp;Byzantines.&nbsp;In&nbsp;his&nbsp;official&nbsp;charters&nbsp;from&nbsp;801&nbsp;onward,&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;preferred&nbsp;the&nbsp;styleKarolus&nbsp;serenissimus&nbsp;Augustus&nbsp;a&nbsp;Deo&nbsp;coronatus&nbsp;magnus&nbsp;pacificus&nbsp;imperator&nbsp;Romanum&nbsp;gubernans&nbsp;imperium&nbsp;(&quot;Charles,&nbsp;most&nbsp;serene&nbsp;Augustus&nbsp;crowned&nbsp;by&nbsp;God,&nbsp;the&nbsp;great,&nbsp;peaceful&nbsp;emperor&nbsp;ruling&nbsp;the&nbsp;Roman&nbsp;empire&quot;)&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;more&nbsp;direct&nbsp;Imperator&nbsp;Romanorum&nbsp;(&quot;Emperor&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Romans&quot;).[10]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;Iconoclasm&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Isaurian&nbsp;Dynasty&nbsp;and&nbsp;resulting&nbsp;religious&nbsp;conflicts&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;Empress&nbsp;Irene,&nbsp;sitting&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;throne&nbsp;in&nbsp;Constantinople&nbsp;in&nbsp;800,&nbsp;were&nbsp;probably&nbsp;the&nbsp;chief&nbsp;causes&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;pope&#39;s&nbsp;desire&nbsp;to&nbsp;formally&nbsp;acclaim&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;as&nbsp;Roman&nbsp;Emperor.&nbsp;He&nbsp;also&nbsp;most&nbsp;certainly&nbsp;desired&nbsp;to&nbsp;increase&nbsp;the&nbsp;influence&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;papacy,&nbsp;honour&nbsp;his&nbsp;saviour&nbsp;Charlemagne,&nbsp;and&nbsp;solve&nbsp;the&nbsp;constitutional&nbsp;issues&nbsp;then&nbsp;most&nbsp;troubling&nbsp;to&nbsp;European&nbsp;jurists&nbsp;in&nbsp;an&nbsp;era&nbsp;when&nbsp;Rome&nbsp;was&nbsp;not&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;hands&nbsp;of&nbsp;an&nbsp;emperor.&nbsp;Thus,&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;assumption&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;imperial&nbsp;title&nbsp;was&nbsp;not&nbsp;an&nbsp;usurpation&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;eyes&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;or&nbsp;Italians.&nbsp;It&nbsp;was,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Byzantium,&nbsp;where&nbsp;it&nbsp;was&nbsp;protested&nbsp;by&nbsp;Irene&nbsp;and&nbsp;her&nbsp;successor&nbsp;Nicephorus&nbsp;I&mdash;neither&nbsp;of&nbsp;whom&nbsp;had&nbsp;any&nbsp;great&nbsp;effect&nbsp;in&nbsp;enforcing&nbsp;their&nbsp;protests.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">The&nbsp;Byzantines,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;still&nbsp;held&nbsp;several&nbsp;territories&nbsp;in&nbsp;Italy:&nbsp;Venice&nbsp;(what&nbsp;was&nbsp;left&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Exarchate&nbsp;of&nbsp;Ravenna),&nbsp;Reggio&nbsp;(in&nbsp;Calabria),&nbsp;Brindisi&nbsp;(in&nbsp;Apulia),&nbsp;and&nbsp;Naples&nbsp;(the&nbsp;Ducatus&nbsp;Neapolitanus).&nbsp;These&nbsp;regions&nbsp;remained&nbsp;outside&nbsp;of&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;hands&nbsp;until&nbsp;804,&nbsp;when&nbsp;the&nbsp;Venetians,&nbsp;torn&nbsp;by&nbsp;infighting,&nbsp;transferred&nbsp;their&nbsp;allegiance&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Iron&nbsp;Crown&nbsp;of&nbsp;Pippin,&nbsp;Charles&#39;&nbsp;son.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Pax&nbsp;Nicephori&nbsp;ended.&nbsp;Nicephorus&nbsp;ravaged&nbsp;the&nbsp;coasts&nbsp;with&nbsp;a&nbsp;fleet&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;only&nbsp;instance&nbsp;of&nbsp;war&nbsp;between&nbsp;the&nbsp;Byzantines&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks,&nbsp;as&nbsp;it&nbsp;was,&nbsp;began.&nbsp;It&nbsp;lasted&nbsp;until&nbsp;810,&nbsp;when&nbsp;the&nbsp;pro-Byzantine&nbsp;party&nbsp;in&nbsp;Venice&nbsp;gave&nbsp;their&nbsp;city&nbsp;back&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Byzantine&nbsp;Emperor&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;two&nbsp;emperors&nbsp;of&nbsp;Europe&nbsp;made&nbsp;peace:&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;received&nbsp;the&nbsp;Istrianpeninsula&nbsp;and&nbsp;in&nbsp;812&nbsp;the&nbsp;emperor&nbsp;Michael&nbsp;I&nbsp;Rhangabes&nbsp;recognised&nbsp;his&nbsp;status&nbsp;as&nbsp;Emperor,[11]&nbsp;although&nbsp;not&nbsp;necessarily&nbsp;as&nbsp;&quot;Emperor&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Romans&quot;.[12]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Danish&nbsp;attacks<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">After&nbsp;the&nbsp;conquest&nbsp;of&nbsp;Nordalbingia,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;frontier&nbsp;was&nbsp;brought&nbsp;into&nbsp;contact&nbsp;with&nbsp;Scandinavia.&nbsp;The&nbsp;pagan&nbsp;Danes,&nbsp;&quot;a&nbsp;race&nbsp;almost&nbsp;unknown&nbsp;to&nbsp;his&nbsp;ancestors,&nbsp;but&nbsp;destined&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;only&nbsp;too&nbsp;well&nbsp;known&nbsp;to&nbsp;his&nbsp;sons&quot;&nbsp;as&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;Oman&nbsp;described&nbsp;them,&nbsp;inhabiting&nbsp;the&nbsp;Jutland&nbsp;peninsula&nbsp;had&nbsp;heard&nbsp;many&nbsp;stories&nbsp;from&nbsp;Widukind&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;allies&nbsp;who&nbsp;had&nbsp;taken&nbsp;refuge&nbsp;with&nbsp;them&nbsp;about&nbsp;the&nbsp;dangers&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Franks&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;fury&nbsp;which&nbsp;their&nbsp;Christian&nbsp;king&nbsp;could&nbsp;direct&nbsp;against&nbsp;pagan&nbsp;neighbours.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;808,&nbsp;the&nbsp;king&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Danes,&nbsp;Godfred,&nbsp;built&nbsp;the&nbsp;vast&nbsp;Danevirke&nbsp;across&nbsp;the&nbsp;isthmus&nbsp;of&nbsp;Schleswig.&nbsp;This&nbsp;defence,&nbsp;last&nbsp;employed&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Danish-Prussian&nbsp;War&nbsp;of&nbsp;1864,&nbsp;was&nbsp;at&nbsp;its&nbsp;beginning&nbsp;a&nbsp;30&nbsp;km&nbsp;long&nbsp;earthenwork&nbsp;rampart.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Danevirke&nbsp;protected&nbsp;Danish&nbsp;land&nbsp;and&nbsp;gave&nbsp;Godfred&nbsp;the&nbsp;opportunity&nbsp;to&nbsp;harass&nbsp;Frisia&nbsp;and&nbsp;Flanders&nbsp;with&nbsp;pirate&nbsp;raids.&nbsp;He&nbsp;also&nbsp;subdued&nbsp;the&nbsp;Frank-allied&nbsp;Wiltzes&nbsp;and&nbsp;fought&nbsp;the&nbsp;Abotrites.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Godfred&nbsp;invaded&nbsp;Frisia&nbsp;and&nbsp;joked&nbsp;of&nbsp;visiting&nbsp;Aachen,&nbsp;but&nbsp;was&nbsp;murdered&nbsp;before&nbsp;he&nbsp;could&nbsp;do&nbsp;any&nbsp;more,&nbsp;either&nbsp;by&nbsp;a&nbsp;Frankish&nbsp;assassin&nbsp;or&nbsp;by&nbsp;one&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;own&nbsp;men.&nbsp;Godfred&nbsp;was&nbsp;succeeded&nbsp;by&nbsp;his&nbsp;nephew&nbsp;Hemming,&nbsp;who&nbsp;concluded&nbsp;the&nbsp;Treaty&nbsp;of&nbsp;Heiligen&nbsp;with&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;in&nbsp;late&nbsp;811.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]Death<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Persephone&nbsp;sarcophagus&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charlemagne<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">In&nbsp;813,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;called&nbsp;Louis&nbsp;the&nbsp;Pious,&nbsp;king&nbsp;of&nbsp;Aquitaine,&nbsp;his&nbsp;only&nbsp;surviving&nbsp;legitimate&nbsp;son,&nbsp;to&nbsp;his&nbsp;court.&nbsp;There&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;crowned&nbsp;his&nbsp;son&nbsp;with&nbsp;his&nbsp;own&nbsp;hands&nbsp;as&nbsp;co-emperor&nbsp;and&nbsp;sent&nbsp;him&nbsp;back&nbsp;to&nbsp;Aquitaine.&nbsp;He&nbsp;then&nbsp;spent&nbsp;the&nbsp;autumn&nbsp;hunting&nbsp;before&nbsp;returning&nbsp;to&nbsp;Aachen&nbsp;on&nbsp;1&nbsp;November.&nbsp;In&nbsp;January,&nbsp;he&nbsp;fell&nbsp;ill&nbsp;with&nbsp;pleurisy.[13]&nbsp;He&nbsp;took&nbsp;to&nbsp;his&nbsp;bed&nbsp;on&nbsp;21&nbsp;January&nbsp;and&nbsp;as&nbsp;Einhard&nbsp;tells&nbsp;it:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;died&nbsp;January&nbsp;twenty-eighth,&nbsp;the&nbsp;seventh&nbsp;day&nbsp;from&nbsp;the&nbsp;time&nbsp;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;took&nbsp;to&nbsp;his&nbsp;bed,&nbsp;at&nbsp;nine&nbsp;o&#39;clock&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;morning,&nbsp;after&nbsp;partaking&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Holy&nbsp;Communion,&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;seventy-second&nbsp;year&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;age&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;forty-seventh&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;reign.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium"><br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Frederick&nbsp;II&#39;s&nbsp;gold&nbsp;and&nbsp;silver&nbsp;casket&nbsp;for&nbsp;Charlemagne<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;was&nbsp;buried&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;day&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;death,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Aachen&nbsp;Cathedral,&nbsp;although&nbsp;the&nbsp;cold&nbsp;weather&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;nature&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;illness&nbsp;made&nbsp;such&nbsp;a&nbsp;hurried&nbsp;burial&nbsp;unnecessary.&nbsp;The&nbsp;earliest&nbsp;survivingplanctus,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Planctus&nbsp;de&nbsp;obitu&nbsp;Karoli,&nbsp;was&nbsp;composed&nbsp;by&nbsp;a&nbsp;monk&nbsp;of&nbsp;Bobbio,&nbsp;which&nbsp;he&nbsp;had&nbsp;patronised.[14]&nbsp;A&nbsp;later&nbsp;story,&nbsp;told&nbsp;by&nbsp;Otho&nbsp;of&nbsp;Lomello,&nbsp;Count&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Palace&nbsp;at&nbsp;Aachen&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;time&nbsp;of&nbsp;Otto&nbsp;III,&nbsp;would&nbsp;claim&nbsp;that&nbsp;he&nbsp;and&nbsp;Emperor&nbsp;Otto&nbsp;had&nbsp;discovered&nbsp;Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;tomb:&nbsp;the&nbsp;emperor,&nbsp;they&nbsp;claimed,&nbsp;was&nbsp;seated&nbsp;upon&nbsp;a&nbsp;throne,&nbsp;wearing&nbsp;a&nbsp;crown&nbsp;and&nbsp;holding&nbsp;a&nbsp;sceptre,&nbsp;his&nbsp;flesh&nbsp;almost&nbsp;entirely&nbsp;incorrupt.&nbsp;In&nbsp;1165,&nbsp;Frederick&nbsp;I&nbsp;re-opened&nbsp;the&nbsp;tomb&nbsp;again,&nbsp;and&nbsp;placed&nbsp;the&nbsp;emperor&nbsp;in&nbsp;a&nbsp;sarcophagus&nbsp;beneath&nbsp;the&nbsp;floor&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;cathedral.[15]&nbsp;In&nbsp;1215&nbsp;Frederick&nbsp;II&nbsp;would&nbsp;re-inter&nbsp;him&nbsp;in&nbsp;a&nbsp;casket&nbsp;made&nbsp;of&nbsp;gold&nbsp;and&nbsp;silver.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">Charlemagne&#39;s&nbsp;death&nbsp;greatly&nbsp;affected&nbsp;many&nbsp;of&nbsp;his&nbsp;subjects,&nbsp;particularly&nbsp;those&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;literary&nbsp;clique&nbsp;who&nbsp;had&nbsp;surrounded&nbsp;him&nbsp;at&nbsp;Aachen.&nbsp;An&nbsp;anonymous&nbsp;monk&nbsp;of&nbsp;Bobbio&nbsp;lamented:<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">&ldquo; From&nbsp;the&nbsp;lands&nbsp;where&nbsp;the&nbsp;sun&nbsp;rises&nbsp;to&nbsp;western&nbsp;shores,&nbsp;People&nbsp;are&nbsp;crying&nbsp;and&nbsp;wailing...the&nbsp;Franks,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Romans,&nbsp;all&nbsp;Christians,&nbsp;are&nbsp;stung&nbsp;with&nbsp;mourning&nbsp;and&nbsp;great&nbsp;worry...the&nbsp;young&nbsp;and&nbsp;old,&nbsp;glorious&nbsp;nobles,&nbsp;all&nbsp;lament&nbsp;the&nbsp;loss&nbsp;of&nbsp;their&nbsp;Caesar...the&nbsp;world&nbsp;laments&nbsp;the&nbsp;death&nbsp;of&nbsp;Charles...O&nbsp;Christ,&nbsp;you&nbsp;who&nbsp;govern&nbsp;the&nbsp;heavenly&nbsp;host,&nbsp;grant&nbsp;a&nbsp;peaceful&nbsp;place&nbsp;to&nbsp;Charles&nbsp;in&nbsp;your&nbsp;kingdom.&nbsp;Alas&nbsp;for&nbsp;miserable&nbsp;me.[16] &rdquo;<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">He&nbsp;was&nbsp;succeeded&nbsp;by&nbsp;his&nbsp;surviving&nbsp;son,&nbsp;Louis,&nbsp;who&nbsp;had&nbsp;been&nbsp;crowned&nbsp;the&nbsp;previous&nbsp;year.&nbsp;His&nbsp;empire&nbsp;lasted&nbsp;only&nbsp;another&nbsp;generation&nbsp;in&nbsp;its&nbsp;entirety;&nbsp;its&nbsp;division,&nbsp;according&nbsp;to&nbsp;custom,&nbsp;between&nbsp;Louis&#39;s&nbsp;own&nbsp;sons&nbsp;after&nbsp;their&nbsp;father&#39;s&nbsp;death&nbsp;laid&nbsp;the&nbsp;foundation&nbsp;for&nbsp;the&nbsp;modern&nbsp;states&nbsp;of&nbsp;France&nbsp;and&nbsp;Germany.<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><span style="font-size: medium">[edit]<br></span></div><div style="text-align: "><br></div></span></span>

 
 
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